Bio psych L89 flashcards

All 50 cards

1. Card 1

   Define the corpus callosum and explain its primary function in the context of brain hemispheres.

   The corpus callosum is a massive bridge of millions of axons connecting the right and left cerebral hemispheres. Its primary function is to allow information to flow efficiently between the two hemispheres, enabling them to communicate and coordinate their activities.

2. Card 2

   How does a split-brain operation, also known as a corpus callostomy, work to alleviate intractable epilepsy?

   A split-brain operation involves surgically cutting the corpus callosum. This procedure is designed to prevent the spread of abnormal neural activity from one hemisphere to the other, thereby reducing the frequency and severity of seizures in individuals with intractable epilepsy.

3. Card 3

   Explain the concept of 'localisation of function' within the cerebral cortex.

   Localisation of function refers to the idea that different, specific areas of the brain are responsible for particular functions or behaviours. For instance, the occipital lobes are primarily responsible for visual perception, while the frontal lobes are crucial for voluntary movement and executive functions.

4. Card 4

   Distinguish between primary sensory projection areas and primary motor projection areas within the cerebral cortex.

   Primary sensory projection areas are the first regions within the cortex to receive information directly from the sense organs, such as the primary visual cortex receiving input from the eyes. In contrast, primary motor projection areas are the departure points in the cortex for signals that are sent to the muscles to control movement.

5. Card 5

   Describe the primary functions of the occipital lobes and identify the key area located within them.

   The occipital lobes, located at the back of the head, are responsible for visual perception, including the processing of colour, form, and motion. The primary visual cortices are key regions within the occipital lobes that first receive and analyze information from the visual system.

6. Card 6

   What is the role of the parietal lobes in sensory perception and attention?

   The parietal lobes are vital for sensory perception and integration, managing taste, hearing, sight, touch, and smell. They are also crucial for processing somatosensory information like pain, pressure, temperature, and body position, and play a significant role in attention to the environment.

7. Card 7

   Explain the significance of the primary somatosensory cortices and the concept of the somatosensory homunculus.

   The primary somatosensory cortices, located at the front of the parietal lobes, are the main input areas for the somatosensory system, receiving information from the skin. The somatosensory homunculus is a cortical map showing where each part of the body is processed, with more sensitive skin regions occupying larger cortical areas.

8. Card 8

   What are the primary functions of the frontal lobes, and where are the primary motor cortices located within them?

   The frontal lobes are crucial for voluntary movement, expressive language, and higher-level executive functions such as planning and decision-making. The primary motor cortices, which contain neurons controlling skeletal muscle movements, are specifically located at the back of the frontal lobe.

9. Card 9

   Define contralateral organization and provide an example related to bodily functions.

   Contralateral organization means that most projection areas in the brain control or receive input from the opposite side of the body. For example, movements or sensations on the right side of the body are controlled by the left cerebral hemisphere, while those on the left side are controlled by the right hemisphere.

10. Card 10

    What is hemispatial neglect, and which brain region is typically associated with its occurrence?

    Hemispatial neglect is a neurological condition where damage to one brain hemisphere results in a deficit of attention or awareness towards the side of space opposite to the brain damage. This condition typically occurs when the parietal lobe is damaged.

11. Card 11

    Describe the key functions of the prefrontal cortex and its prominence in humans.

    The prefrontal cortex, the front-most portion of the frontal lobes, is especially prominent in humans. It is critical for attention, working memory, planning and sequencing of behaviour, decision-making, appropriate social behaviour, and personality. Its maturation into early adulthood explains improvements in impulse control.

12. Card 12

    What are the typical consequences of damage to the prefrontal cortex?

    Damage to the prefrontal cortex often results in significant deficits in social and emotional behaviour, as well as executive dysfunction. This can manifest as behavioural abnormalities, poor social/emotional regulation, lack of empathy, and inappropriate reactions, highlighting its role in complex cognitive and social functions.

13. Card 13

    What are the primary functions of the temporal lobes, and where are the primary auditory cortices located?

    The temporal lobes are responsible for processing auditory information, language, memory, and object and face perception. The primary auditory cortices, which receive primary input from the auditory system, are located in the upper portion of the temporal lobes.

14. Card 14

    Explain the role of association areas, specifically the visual association cortex, in perception.

    Association areas, such as the sensory association cortex, receive and further analyze sensory information from the primary sensory areas. For example, the visual association cortex, located in the rest of the occipital lobe and lower temporal lobe, processes information from the primary visual cortex, allowing us to interpret and recognize objects by sight, moving beyond basic sensation to perception.

15. Card 15

    Distinguish between the effects of damage to the primary visual cortex and damage to the visual association cortex.

    Damage to the primary visual cortex leads to cortical blindness, a deficit in sensation where visual input cannot be processed. In contrast, damage to the visual association cortex does not cause blindness; instead, it results in agnosia, where individuals cannot recognize objects by sight despite having intact vision.

16. Card 16

    Define agnosia and provide an example related to visual perception.

    Agnosia refers to a failure to perceive or identify a stimulus by means of a specific sensory modality, despite the sensory organs themselves being intact. For example, if someone sustains damage to the visual association cortex, they may not be blind but will be unable to recognize familiar objects by sight, even if they can clearly see them.

17. Card 17

    What is lateralization of function, and how does it relate to language processing?

    Lateralization of function, also known as functional hemispheric asymmetry, is the concept that some cognitive functions are primarily located or specialized in one side of the brain. In the domain of language, the left hemisphere is more involved in speech production (Broca's area) and comprehension (Wernicke's area), while the right hemisphere is better at understanding intonation and emotional tone.

18. Card 18

    Describe the functions of Broca's area and Wernicke's area and their respective locations.

    Broca's area is an area in the left frontal lobe that directs the muscle movements involved in speech production. Wernicke's area, located in the left temporal lobe, is involved in language comprehension and expression. Damage to these areas leads to different forms of aphasia.

19. Card 19

    What are aphasias, and how do Broca's aphasia and Wernicke's aphasia differ?

    Aphasias are disorders of language typically caused by left hemisphere damage. Broca's aphasia results from damage to Broca's area, primarily impairing speech production, making it difficult for individuals to speak fluently. Wernicke's aphasia, caused by damage to Wernicke's area, impairs language comprehension and expression, leading to difficulty understanding speech and producing meaningful sentences.

20. Card 20

    Explain the concept of the cerebral cortex's surface folds (gyri and sulci) and their evolutionary advantage.

    The cerebral cortex features surface folds consisting of gyri (ridges) and sulci (grooves). These folds significantly increase the cortical surface area, allowing for a much higher density of neurons to be packed within the confines of the skull. This evolutionary advantage enables the brain to house a vast number of neurons without greatly increasing skull size, supporting complex cognitive functions.

21. Card 21

    How do Robert Sperry and Michael Gazzaniga's research on split-brain patients contribute to our understanding of the cerebral cortex?

    Sperry and Gazzaniga's pioneering research on split-brain patients demonstrated that the cerebral hemispheres exchange information via the corpus callosum. Their novel experimental procedures revealed that when the corpus callosum is severed, the hemispheres can function independently, highlighting the critical role of this structure in interhemispheric communication and supporting the idea of lateralization of function.

22. Card 22

    What is a hemispherectomy, and what remarkable ability does the brain sometimes demonstrate after this procedure?

    A hemispherectomy is a rare surgical procedure that involves removing an unhealthy hemisphere of the brain, typically performed on children with severe, medication-resistant epilepsy. Remarkably, after this surgery, the remaining cerebral hemisphere is often able to take over some cognitive, sensory, and motor functions, demonstrating significant neural plasticity.

23. Card 23

    Describe the somatotopic organization of the primary motor cortex and the concept of the motor homunculus.

    The primary motor cortex, located at the back of the frontal lobe, exhibits somatotopic organization, meaning specific regions within this area control the movements of specific body parts. The motor homunculus is a representation of this organization, illustrating how different body parts are mapped onto the motor cortex, with areas requiring fine motor control, like the hands and face, having larger cortical representations.

24. Card 24

    How does the prefrontal cortex's development relate to improvements in impulse control and decision-making in humans?

    The prefrontal cortex undergoes a prolonged maturation process, extending into early adulthood. This late development explains why abilities such as impulse control, planning, and complex decision-making gradually improve throughout adolescence and into early adulthood, as this region becomes fully developed and integrated.

25. Card 25

    Explain the difference in function between the left and right hemispheres regarding language, beyond just speech production.

    While the left hemisphere is predominantly involved in speech production (Broca's area) and language comprehension (Wernicke's area), the right hemisphere plays a crucial role in understanding the non-literal and emotional aspects of language. This includes better processing of intonation patterns, emotional tone in speech, and comprehension of metaphors, demonstrating that language processing is not exclusively left-lateralized.

26. Card 26

    Define 'primary projection areas' in the context of the cerebral cortex and distinguish between the two main types.

    Primary projection areas are the initial cortical regions that either receive sensory input directly from sensory organs or generate motor output signals to muscles. The two main types are primary sensory projection areas, which process incoming sensory information (e.g., V1 for vision), and primary motor projection areas, which send signals for voluntary movement (e.g., primary motor cortex).

27. Card 27

    How do gyri and sulci contribute to the efficiency and functionality of the cerebral cortex?

    Gyri (ridges) and sulci (grooves) are the folds on the surface of the cerebral cortex. Their primary contribution is to significantly increase the cortical surface area that can be packed within the limited confines of the skull. This allows for a much higher density of neurons, estimated between 20-60 billion, without requiring a proportionally larger skull, providing an evolutionary advantage for complex brain functions.

28. Card 28

    Explain the concept of 'somatotopic organization' within the primary somatosensory cortex and provide an example of its functional relevance.

    Somatotopic organization refers to the orderly mapping of specific body parts onto corresponding regions of the primary somatosensory cortex. This mapping is often visualized as a 'somatosensory homunculus,' where body parts with higher sensory sensitivity, such as the lips and hands, occupy disproportionately larger cortical areas. This differential representation allows for finer sensory discrimination in areas critical for interaction with the environment.

29. Card 29

    What is the primary role of the corpus callosum, and what happens to interhemispheric communication if it is surgically severed?

    The corpus callosum is a large white-matter bridge containing approximately 300 million axons, whose primary role is to connect the two cerebral hemispheres and enable seamless interhemispheric communication. If it is surgically severed, as in a split-brain operation, the normal exchange of information between the hemispheres is interrupted, causing them to operate almost independently, with sensory mechanisms, motor systems, and memories no longer appearing to exchange information directly.

30. Card 30

    How does damage to the prefrontal cortex impact an individual's behavior and personality, particularly considering its developmental timeline?

    Damage to the prefrontal cortex can lead to significant changes in personality and behavior, including poor social and emotional regulation, lack of empathy, and inappropriate reactions, as seen in cases like Phineas Gage. This is because the prefrontal cortex is crucial for executive functions, decision-making, impulse control, and social behavior, and it continues to mature into early adulthood, explaining late improvements in these areas.

31. Card 31

    Distinguish between Broca's aphasia and Wernicke's aphasia, including their respective locations of damage and primary symptoms.

    Broca's aphasia results from damage to Broca's area in the left frontal lobe, leading to impaired speech production and nonfluent speech, where individuals struggle to form words but generally understand language. Wernicke's aphasia, conversely, stems from damage to Wernicke's area in the left temporal lobe, causing impaired language comprehension and fluent but often nonsensical speech, where individuals can speak but their words lack meaning.

32. Card 32

    Define 'visual agnosia' and explain how it differs from a simple vision impairment.

    Visual agnosia is a condition resulting from damage to visual association cortex, characterized by an inability to recognize objects despite having intact visual perception. Unlike simple vision impairment, where the eyes or primary visual cortex may be damaged, individuals with visual agnosia can see an object perfectly well but cannot identify or assign meaning to what they are seeing.

33. Card 33

    Why is the remaining cerebral hemisphere often able to take over some functions after a hemispherectomy, especially in children?

    After a hemispherectomy, the remaining cerebral hemisphere can often compensate and take over some cognitive, sensory, and motor functions due to the brain's plasticity, which is particularly pronounced in children. This remarkable ability allows the intact hemisphere to reorganize and adapt, re-routing neural pathways and assuming responsibilities that were previously managed by the removed or disconnected hemisphere.

34. Card 34

    Explain the concept of 'contralateral organization' in visual processing, specifically how information from the visual fields is processed by the cerebral hemispheres.

    Contralateral organization in visual processing means that each cerebral hemisphere primarily processes information from the opposite side of the visual field. Specifically, information from the left visual field is processed by the right visual cortex, and information from the right visual field is processed by the left visual cortex. This occurs because optic nerve fibers 'cross over' at the optic chiasm before reaching the primary visual cortex.

35. Card 35

    What are 'association areas' of the cortex, and how do they differ in function from primary projection areas?

    Association areas are cortical regions that do not directly process primary sensory input or motor output. Instead, their crucial function is to integrate information across multiple modalities, linking perception with memory, emotion, and decision-making. This contrasts with primary projection areas, which serve as the initial cortical interface for receiving raw sensory data or generating direct motor commands.

36. Card 36

    How does split-brain research, particularly experiments with visual stimuli, demonstrate the independent operation of the cerebral hemispheres?

    Split-brain research demonstrates independent hemispheric operation by presenting stimuli to specific visual fields. For example, if a spoon is shown to the left visual field (processed by the right hemisphere) and a fork to the right visual field (processed by the left hemisphere), a patient asked to verbally identify what they saw will say 'fork' (left hemisphere controls language). However, if asked to pick up the object with their left hand (controlled by the right hemisphere), they will pick up the spoon, showing that each hemisphere has its own perception and memory without sharing this information verbally.

37. Card 37

    Describe the primary functions of the temporal lobe and how damage to this area might affect an individual.

    The temporal lobe is primarily involved in auditory processing, language comprehension (Wernicke's area), memory formation (via connections with the hippocampus), and object/face recognition. Damage to the temporal lobe can therefore lead to deficits such as impaired hearing, difficulty understanding language (Wernicke's aphasia), problems forming new memories, or an inability to recognize familiar objects or faces.

38. Card 38

    What is 'hemispatial neglect,' and which cortical lobe is typically associated with its occurrence?

    Hemispatial neglect is a neurological condition where individuals fail to attend to one side of space, typically the left side, despite having intact vision and no primary sensory or motor deficits. This condition is most commonly associated with damage to the right parietal lobe, highlighting its critical role in spatial awareness and attention.

39. Card 39

    Explain the 'motor homunculus' and its significance in understanding motor control.

    The motor homunculus is a somatotopic map within the primary motor cortex (located in the posterior frontal lobe) that represents the body. Similar to the sensory homunculus, it shows that specific regions of the cortex control specific voluntary skeletal muscle movements. Its significance lies in illustrating that body parts requiring fine motor control, such as the hands and face, have a disproportionately larger cortical representation, reflecting the precision and complexity of their movements.

40. Card 40

    Why is the popular notion of 'left-brain vs. right-brain' personalities considered an oversimplification?

    The popular notion of 'left-brain vs. right-brain' personalities is an oversimplification because while hemispheric specialization (lateralization) exists for certain functions like language (left) and spatial tasks (right), both hemispheres typically cooperate and communicate extensively via the corpus callosum. Complex cognitive functions and personality traits involve intricate networks across both hemispheres, making a strict division into 'logical' left or 'creative' right brains largely unsupported by scientific evidence.

41. Card 41

    Define 'lateralization of function' and provide an example of a function that is strongly lateralized.

    Lateralization of function refers to the functional specialization of the left versus right cerebral hemispheres, meaning that certain cognitive processes are predominantly handled by one hemisphere. A strong example of a lateralized function is language production and comprehension, which is primarily dominant in the left hemisphere for most people, involving areas like Broca's and Wernicke's.

42. Card 42

    What is the primary role of the occipital lobe, and how does it contribute to visual perception beyond just receiving raw input?

    The primary role of the occipital lobe is visual perception, specifically processing aspects like color, form, and motion. While its primary visual cortex (V1) receives retinal input, secondary visual areas (visual association cortex) within and beyond the occipital lobe are crucial for interpreting and assigning meaning to these visual signals, combining features into a coherent and recognizable perception.

43. Card 43

    Describe the phenomenon of 'inter-manual conflict' or 'alien hand syndrome' in split-brain patients and what it reveals about hemispheric independence.

    Inter-manual conflict, sometimes described as 'alien hand syndrome,' occurs in split-brain patients when their left and right hands perform contradictory activities, as if one hand has 'a mind of its own.' For example, one hand might try to pick out a dress while the other tries to pick a different one. This phenomenon reveals that after the corpus callosum is severed, the hemispheres can operate with independent intentions and motor commands, lacking the normal integrated control and awareness.

44. Card 44

    How does the cerebral cortex's structure, specifically its thin sheet with high neuron density, relate to its overall cognitive capacity?

    The cerebral cortex is a thin sheet characterized by an extremely high neuron density, estimated to contain between 20 to 60 billion neurons. This dense packing of neurons within the folded structure allows for an immense number of neural connections and processing units. This high neuron count and intricate connectivity are fundamental to the cortex's capacity for complex cognitive functions, including perception, memory, language, and executive decision-making.

45. Card 45

    What is the significance of the fact that the prefrontal cortex matures into early adulthood in terms of human development?

    The significance of the prefrontal cortex maturing into early adulthood is that it explains why impulse control, decision-making, social behavior, and planning abilities continue to develop and improve throughout adolescence and into young adulthood. This prolonged maturation period suggests a gradual refinement of the executive functions that are crucial for navigating complex social environments and making reasoned choices.

46. Card 46

    How did electrical stimulation during neurosurgery contribute to our understanding of cortical mapping?

    Electrical stimulation during neurosurgery, famously conducted by Wilder Penfield, involved directly stimulating parts of the exposed cerebral cortex in conscious patients. This technique allowed researchers to observe immediate responses, such as specific muscle movements or sensory perceptions, when different cortical areas were stimulated. These observations led to the creation of detailed cortical maps, including the somatosensory and motor homunculi, providing direct evidence for the precise localization of functions in the brain.

47. Card 47

    Explain how the parietal lobe integrates multiple sensory modalities, and why this is important for spatial awareness.

    The parietal lobe integrates multiple sensory modalities by combining input from the primary somatosensory cortex (touch, pressure, temperature, pain, proprioception) with visual and auditory information. This integration is crucial for spatial awareness because it allows the brain to construct a coherent representation of the body's position in space relative to its surroundings, enabling tasks like navigation, reaching for objects, and maintaining balance.

48. Card 48

    What role does the 'interpreter' (as described by Gazzaniga) play in the left hemisphere of split-brain patients, and how does it manifest?

    In split-brain patients, the 'interpreter' refers to the left hemisphere's propensity to construct a coherent narrative or explanation for actions, even when it lacks complete information from the right hemisphere. This manifests when the left hemisphere, dominant for language, attempts to rationalize behaviors initiated by the right hemisphere without the left hemisphere's conscious awareness. For example, if the right hemisphere causes an action, the left hemisphere will invent a plausible, but often incorrect, reason for it, striving to make sense of the world.

49. Card 49

    Beyond language, what are some of the key functions attributed to the right hemisphere?

    Beyond its role in language, the right hemisphere is primarily responsible for several key functions, including processing intonation and emotional tone in speech, comprehending metaphors, recognizing faces, and performing various spatial tasks. It contributes to a holistic understanding of context and non-verbal communication, complementing the left hemisphere's more analytical and verbal processing.

50. Card 50

    Distinguish between the anatomical convention of the four lobes of the cortex and the functional reality of brain operation.

    The four lobes (frontal, parietal, temporal, occipital) are anatomical conventions named after the overlying skull bones, serving as convenient markers for general regions. However, the functional reality of brain operation is that these lobes do not work in isolation. Instead, functions often overlap, and complex cognitive processes involve intricate networks and communication across multiple lobes and hemispheres, rather than being strictly confined to single anatomical divisions.

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