PST2235 - Module 1: pathophysiology, cellular adaptations, innate defences flashcards

All 49 cards

1. Card 1

   Define pathophysiology and explain its significance for health professionals.

   Pathophysiology is the study of physiological changes that occur in living organisms due to disease or suffering. It is significant for health professionals as it helps them recognize and prevent diseases, understand their manifestations and complications, and guides their questioning and documentation during patient care.

2. Card 2

   Distinguish between a biopsy and an autopsy.

   A biopsy involves the excision of small amounts of living tissue for examination, typically to diagnose a disease in a living patient. An autopsy, in contrast, is the examination of the body and its organs after death, usually to determine the cause of death or the extent of disease.

3. Card 3

   Which type of disease prevention focuses on preventing the initial occurrence of a disease through campaigns and mass vaccinations? A) Primary Prevention B) Secondary Prevention C) Tertiary Prevention D) Prophylactic Prevention

   A) Primary Prevention. Primary prevention aims to prevent a disease from ever occurring, often through broad public health initiatives like vaccination programs and health campaigns.

4. Card 4

   Define 'aetiology' and provide an example of a specific type of aetiology.

   Aetiology refers to the causative factor or factors of a disease. An example is 'iatrogenic,' which describes a disease or condition caused by medical treatments, procedures, or medical errors.

5. Card 5

   Explain the difference between 'signs' and 'symptoms' in the context of disease manifestations.

   Signs are objective indicators of disease that can be observed or measured by others, such as a fever or a rash. Symptoms are subjective experiences of disease reported by the patient, such as pain or nausea, which cannot be directly observed by others.

6. Card 6

   What is the 'prodromal' stage of a disease?

   The prodromal stage is an early phase of a disease characterized by vague, non-specific symptoms. These symptoms often precede the more distinct and recognizable manifestations of the disease, making diagnosis difficult during this period.

7. Card 7

   Distinguish between 'remission' and 'exacerbation' in the course of a chronic disease.

   Remission refers to a period when the signs and symptoms of a disease ease or resolve, indicating a temporary improvement. Exacerbation, conversely, is a period when the signs and symptoms of a disease worsen, representing a flare-up or intensification of the condition.

8. Card 8

   Which term describes the probability of recovery from a disease? A) Morbidity B) Mortality C) Prognosis D) Incidence

   C) Prognosis. Prognosis specifically refers to the likely course of a disease and the probability of recovery or outcome for a patient.

9. Card 9

   Explain the difference between 'incidence' and 'prevalence' when discussing the occurrence of a disease in a population.

   Incidence refers to the number of new cases of a disease within a specific time period in a population. Prevalence, on the other hand, refers to the total number of new, old, and existing cases of a disease in a population at a given time. Prevalence will always be greater than incidence because it includes all current cases, not just new ones.

10. Card 10

    What is 'dysplasia' in terms of cellular growth patterns?

    Dysplasia is a cellular growth pattern where there is an increase in cell number, but the cells lose their normal arrangement and uniformity. This often indicates a disordered growth that can be a precursor to malignancy, although it is not cancerous itself.

11. Card 11

    Which cellular adaptation involves an increase in the size of individual cells? A) Atrophy B) Hyperplasia C) Hypertrophy D) Metaplasia

    C) Hypertrophy. Hypertrophy is the increase in the size of cells, which in turn leads to an increase in the size of the organ or tissue, often due to increased workload.

12. Card 12

    How does 'metaplasia' differ from other cellular adaptations like hypertrophy or hyperplasia?

    Metaplasia is a reversible change where one mature cell type is replaced by another mature cell type, often in response to chronic irritation or inflammation. Unlike hypertrophy (increase in cell size) or hyperplasia (increase in cell number), metaplasia involves a change in the cell's differentiation, leading to a different cell type.

13. Card 13

    Identify two common mechanisms of cellular injury.

    Two common mechanisms of cellular injury include the disruption of permeability and transport mechanisms across the cell membrane, and a decrease or cessation of cell metabolism. These disruptions impair the cell's ability to maintain homeostasis and function properly.

14. Card 14

    What is the primary difference between 'necrosis' and 'apoptosis'?

    Necrosis is uncontrolled cell death that occurs due to injury, leading to cell digestion (auto-lysis) and typically triggering an inflammatory response. Apoptosis, in contrast, is programmed cell death, a normal physiological process for removing excessive or aged cells, and it generally does not trigger an inflammatory response.

15. Card 15

    Why is 'inflammation' considered a protective response?

    Inflammation is considered a protective response because it is the body's initial reaction to injury or infection. It aims to localize and eliminate the harmful agent, remove damaged tissue, and initiate the healing process, thereby preventing further damage and promoting recovery.

16. Card 16

    What does the suffix '-itis' generally indicate in medical terminology?

    The suffix '-itis' generally indicates inflammation. For example, appendicitis means inflammation of the appendix, and arthritis means inflammation of the joints.

17. Card 17

    List three potential causes of inflammation.

    Three potential causes of inflammation include physical trauma (e.g., a cut or bruise), chemical irritants (e.g., strong acids or bases), and ischemia, which is a lack of blood supply leading to tissue damage.

18. Card 18

    Explain how a 'granuloma' can develop as a complication of chronic inflammation.

    A granuloma can develop in chronic inflammation when the body attempts to wall off and contain an irritant or foreign object that it cannot eliminate. Immune cells, such as macrophages, aggregate around the foreign material, forming a mass of granulation tissue to isolate it, which is characteristic of a granuloma.

19. Card 19

    Distinguish between 'resolution' and 'replacement' as methods of wound healing.

    Resolution in wound healing occurs when there is minimal tissue damage, and the damaged cells recover, returning the tissue to its normal structure and function. Replacement, however, occurs when there is extensive tissue damage or the cells cannot regenerate, leading to the formation of non-functional scar tissue instead of the original tissue.

20. Card 20

    Which of the following factors would delay wound healing? A) Youth B) Optimal nutrition C) Anaemia D) Adequate perfusion

    C) Anaemia. Anaemia, characterized by a low red blood cell count or hemoglobin, would delay wound healing because it reduces the oxygen-carrying capacity of the blood, impairing the delivery of essential oxygen and nutrients to the healing tissues.

21. Card 21

    Why is pain considered a body defense mechanism?

    Pain is considered a body defense mechanism because it serves as a warning signal of a problem or potential tissue damage. It alerts an individual to withdraw from harmful stimuli or seek medical attention, thereby preventing further injury or allowing for timely intervention.

22. Card 22

    What is an 'idiopathic' disease?

    An idiopathic disease is one for which the cause of the disease is unknown. Despite thorough investigation, medical professionals cannot identify the specific factor or factors responsible for its development.

23. Card 23

    Define 'prophylaxis' in the context of disease prevention.

    Prophylaxis refers to measures or treatments designed to prevent disease. This can include medications, vaccines, or lifestyle interventions aimed at averting the onset of a specific condition.

24. Card 24

    What is a 'syndrome' in pathophysiology?

    A syndrome is a collection of signs and symptoms that frequently occur together and characterize a particular disease or abnormal condition. These manifestations are often multi-systemic, affecting several different body systems simultaneously.

25. Card 25

    How does 'communicable' differ from 'notifiable/reportable' in terms of disease characteristics?

    A communicable disease is one that can be spread from person to person, often through direct or indirect contact. A notifiable/reportable disease, on the other hand, is any disease that, by law, must be reported to public health authorities, regardless of whether it is communicable or not, to monitor public health trends and control outbreaks.

26. Card 26

    Define programmed cell death (apoptosis) and explain why it does not trigger an inflammatory response.

    Programmed cell death, or apoptosis, is a normal process for eliminating excessive or aged cells from the body. Unlike necrosis, it is a highly regulated and controlled process that involves the orderly dismantling of cellular components. This controlled process prevents the release of cellular contents into the surrounding tissue, thereby avoiding the activation of an inflammatory response.

27. Card 27

    What is gangrene, and what are its common causes?

    Gangrene refers to larger areas of cell death and is not a distinct type of necrosis itself. It is usually a consequence of severe hypoxic injury, often secondary to arterial occlusion, which deprives tissues of oxygen. Additionally, gangrene can describe situations where bacterial invasion occurs in necrotic tissues, further complicating the cellular damage.

28. Card 28

    Which of the following is NOT typically a cause of inflammation? A) Physical trauma B) Ischemia C) Allergic reactions D) Programmed cell death

    D) Programmed cell death. Programmed cell death (apoptosis) is a controlled process that does not trigger an inflammatory response, unlike physical trauma, ischemia, or allergic reactions which are all common causes of inflammation.

29. Card 29

    Explain the difference between resolution and replacement as types of wound healing.

    Resolution is a type of wound healing that occurs when there is minimal tissue damage, and the damaged cells recover fully, leaving no trace of injury. In contrast, replacement occurs when tissue damage is extensive, or the cells in the damaged area do not divide. In this scenario, the damaged tissue is replaced by non-functional scar tissue, leading to a permanent alteration in the tissue's structure and function.

30. Card 30

    How does advanced age contribute to the delay of wound healing?

    Advanced age can delay wound healing due to several physiological changes. Older individuals often have reduced cellular regeneration capacity, decreased immune response, and poorer circulation, all of which impair the body's ability to effectively repair damaged tissues. Additionally, chronic diseases more prevalent in older age can further complicate the healing process.

31. Card 31

    Define nociceptors and list three types of stimuli that can activate them.

    Nociceptors are free sensory nerve endings that function as pain receptors. They can be stimulated by various types of noxious stimuli, including temperature extremes (both hot and cold), chemicals such as acids, bradykinin, histamine, and prostaglandin, and physical means like pressure or excessive stretching of tissues.

32. Card 32

    Distinguish between myelinated A fibres and unmyelinated C fibres in terms of pain transmission.

    Myelinated A fibres are afferent pain fibres that transmit impulses very rapidly, responsible for acute pain characterized as sudden, sharp, and localized. In contrast, unmyelinated C fibres transmit impulses slowly, conveying chronic pain described as a diffuse, dull, burning, or aching sensation. The presence or absence of myelin significantly impacts the speed of nerve impulse conduction.

33. Card 33

    What is a dermatome, and how is it relevant to pain perception?

    A dermatome is an area of skin innervated by a specific spinal nerve. Its relevance to pain perception lies in the somatosensory cortex, which is 'mapped' to correspond to these dermatomes. This mapping allows the brain to localize the source of pain stimuli to a specific body region, aiding in the identification of the affected spinal nerve or related injury.

34. Card 34

    Explain the 'gate control theory' of pain.

    The gate control theory proposes that there are control systems, or 'gates,' built into the normal pain pathways within the spinal cord and brain. These gates can modify the conduction and transmission of pain stimuli. When the gates are 'open,' pain impulses are transmitted from the periphery to the brain, leading to pain perception. When the gates are 'closed,' the passage of pain impulses is reduced or modified, thereby decreasing the perceived pain.

35. Card 35

    Which of the following best describes referred pain? A) Pain felt at the site of injury B) Pain that persists after healing C) Pain perceived at a site distant from its source D) Pain that is psychological in origin

    C) Pain perceived at a site distant from its source. Referred pain is a phenomenon where the pain originating from visceral damage, such as in abdominal organs or the heart, is perceived at a body site distant from the actual source, making the true origin difficult to determine.

36. Card 36

    A patient experiences pain, itching, and tingling in a limb that was amputated months ago. What type of pain is this, and why is it often difficult to treat?

    This describes phantom pain, which typically occurs in adults following an amputation, especially if chronic pain was present before. It is often difficult to treat because its exact phenomenon is not fully understood, and it usually does not respond to common pain therapies. While it may resolve within weeks to months, its complex nature makes effective intervention challenging.

37. Card 37

    What is the difference between pain tolerance and pain perception?

    Pain tolerance refers to the degree of pain, its intensity, or duration that an individual can withstand before requiring intervention or expressing distress. It can be increased by endorphin release and reduced by factors like fatigue or stress, varying significantly among individuals. Pain perception, on the other hand, is the subjective interpretation and awareness of pain stimuli, which can be compared within the same person over time but is inherently subjective.

38. Card 38

    Describe the typical physiological stress response initiated by acute pain.

    Acute pain, being sudden, severe, and short-term, typically initiates a physiological stress response. This response includes elevated blood pressure and heart rate, cool, pale, and moist skin, an increase in respiratory rate, and increased skeletal muscle tension. Vomiting may also occur, and a strong emotional response is common, all indicating the body's immediate reaction to perceived tissue damage.

39. Card 39

    How does chronic inflammation differ from acute inflammation in terms of physical manifestations and tissue changes?

    Chronic inflammation differs from acute inflammation by presenting with less swelling and exudate. Instead, it is characterized by continued tissue destruction and fibrous scar formation. In some cases, a granuloma may develop around a foreign object, indicating the body's attempt to wall off the irritant. This sustained process leads to more permanent tissue damage and altered function compared to the transient nature of acute inflammation.

40. Card 40

    Which of the following factors would likely promote wound healing? A) Anaemia B) Poor nutrition C) Sufficient haemoglobin D) Infection in the wound

    C) Sufficient haemoglobin. Sufficient haemoglobin ensures adequate oxygen transport to the wound site, which is crucial for cellular metabolism and tissue repair. Anaemia, poor nutrition, and infection in the wound are all factors that delay healing.

41. Card 41

    A patient with a deep burn injury experiences intense, localized pain. Which type of pain fibre is primarily responsible for transmitting this immediate, sharp sensation?

    The immediate, sharp, and localized pain from a deep burn injury is primarily transmitted by myelinated A fibres. These afferent pain fibres are characterized by their rapid impulse transmission, which is responsible for the acute pain sensation that provides a quick warning of tissue damage.

42. Card 42

    What is the significance of the suffix '-itis' in medical terminology?

    The suffix '-itis' in medical terminology indicates inflammation. It signifies a protective response in the body, which can be caused by various factors such as physical trauma, chemical irritants, ischemia, allergic reactions, foreign bodies, or infection. It's important to note that '-itis' does not always signify an infection, as inflammation can have many non-infectious causes.

43. Card 43

    Why is inflammatory exudate considered an 'excellent medium for microbes' in the context of secondary infection?

    Inflammatory exudate is an excellent medium for microbes because it is rich in proteins, nutrients, and moisture, which are all essential for bacterial growth and proliferation. This nutrient-rich environment, combined with potentially compromised local defenses in oedematous tissues, makes it easier for pathogens to thrive and cause secondary infections, complicating the inflammatory process.

44. Card 44

    How can skeletal muscle spasm be a complication of inflammation?

    Skeletal muscle spasm can be a complication of inflammation as the inflammatory process often involves irritation or damage to surrounding tissues, including muscles or nerves. This irritation can lead to involuntary muscle contractions as a protective mechanism or due to localized pain and swelling, contributing to discomfort and potentially hindering recovery in the affected area.

45. Card 45

    A patient with chronic pain is often described as fatigued, irritable, and depressed. Explain why these psychological symptoms are common in chronic pain.

    Chronic pain, occurring over an extended time, can severely impact an individual's quality of life, leading to fatigue, irritability, and depression. The constant discomfort disrupts sleep patterns, drains energy, and limits daily activities, causing emotional distress. The prolonged nature of the pain, often difficult to treat, can lead to feelings of hopelessness and helplessness, contributing to these psychological symptoms.

46. Card 46

    What is the primary difference between cellular necrosis and cellular apoptosis?

    The primary difference between cellular necrosis and cellular apoptosis lies in their nature and consequences. Apoptosis is a programmed, controlled process of cell death that does not trigger inflammation, typically removing unwanted or damaged cells. Necrosis, however, is uncontrolled cell death resulting from injury, infection, or ischemia, leading to the release of cellular contents and triggering an inflammatory response in the surrounding tissue.

47. Card 47

    Which of the following is a factor that delays wound healing? A) Youth B) Optimal nutrition C) Chronic diseases D) Clean wound

    C) Chronic diseases. Chronic diseases, such as diabetes or cardiovascular conditions, can impair the body's ability to heal wounds effectively due to compromised circulation, immune function, or metabolic imbalances. Youth, optimal nutrition, and a clean wound are all factors that promote healing.

48. Card 48

    A patient reports a dull, aching sensation that has been present for several weeks, affecting a broad area rather than a specific point. Which type of pain is this, and which pain fibres are likely involved?

    This describes chronic pain, characterized by its extended duration and diffuse, dull, aching sensation. Unmyelinated C fibres are likely involved in transmitting this type of pain. These fibres transmit impulses slowly, contributing to the generalized and persistent nature of chronic pain.

49. Card 49

    In the context of wound healing, when is replacement by scar tissue typically necessary?

    Replacement by non-functional scar tissue is typically necessary when tissue damage is extensive, or the damaged cells are types that do not divide or regenerate effectively. In such cases, the body cannot restore the original functional tissue, and instead, fibrous scar tissue fills the defect to maintain structural integrity, albeit without the original function.

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