Evolutionary approaches to behaviour flashcards

All 50 cards

1. Card 1

   Define 'behaviour' according to Skinner's perspective, as presented in the source material.

   According to Skinner, behaviour encompasses all observable processes through which an animal reacts to perceived changes, whether these changes occur in the internal state of its body or in the external world around it.

2. Card 2

   Explain the scientific method employed by Niko Tinbergen to understand beewolf homing behaviour, detailing each step.

   Tinbergen applied the scientific method by first posing a question about how beewolves find their way home. He then formed a hypothesis that they use landmarks, which led to the prediction that removing landmarks would hinder their return. This prediction was tested through experiments, leading to the conclusion that beewolves indeed rely on landmarks.

3. Card 3

   A researcher observes a new species of ant that consistently builds its nest under a specific type of rock formation. When these rock formations are experimentally moved, the ants continue to search for their nest at the original location where the formations used to be. Based on Tinbergen's beewolf study, what conclusion can be drawn about this ant species' homing mechanism?

   Based on Tinbergen's study, the ants' behaviour suggests they are using the rock formations as landmarks to locate their nest. Their continued search at the original location after the landmarks were moved indicates that their homing mechanism is reliant on these external cues, similar to how beewolves use landmarks.

4. Card 4

   Distinguish between the proximate and ultimate causes of behaviour as defined in the context of the four Tinbergen's questions.

   Proximate causes explain the immediate 'how' mechanisms of a behaviour, focusing on factors like physiology, genetics, and hormones in the present. Ultimate causes, conversely, address the 'why' evolutionary, functional, or historical reasons behind a behaviour, considering its development over generations and its contribution to survival and reproduction.

5. Card 5

   A bird species is observed to migrate annually. A scientist wants to understand the hormonal changes that trigger this migration in individual birds. Which of Tinbergen's four questions is this scientist primarily addressing, and is it a proximate or ultimate cause?

   This scientist is primarily addressing the 'Mechanism' question, which asks how the behaviour is achieved, focusing on sensory and motor abilities and internal states. This falls under proximate causes, as it explains the immediate physiological 'how' of the migration in the present individual.

6. Card 6

   Explain the concept of 'homing' as it relates to animal behaviour, using the beewolf example from the source material.

   Homing refers to an animal's ability to return to its home territory after having traveled away from it. In the beewolf example, the female beewolf demonstrates homing by covering her nest entrance and then using surrounding landmarks to successfully relocate her nest after leaving to hunt for bees.

7. Card 7

   A group of scientists is studying a population of fish where some individuals exhibit a unique mating dance. They want to determine if this specific dance pattern is passed down from parents to offspring. Which condition for evolutionary change, according to Darwinian theory, are they investigating?

   The scientists are investigating the condition of 'Heredity,' which states that parents must be able to pass on their value of a trait, such as a specific mating dance pattern, to their offspring for evolutionary change to occur. This is a crucial component of Darwinian theory.

8. Card 8

   Define 'natural selection' and 'evolution' according to the provided text, and explain their relationship.

   Natural selection is defined as the differential copy success of alternative alleles, meaning some alleles are more successfully passed on than others. Evolution is the change in allele frequencies in a population through time. Natural selection is the process that causes this evolutionary change by favoring certain alleles that lead to higher reproductive success.

9. Card 9

   A population of deer shows variation in antler size, with some having large antlers and others small. Males with larger antlers are consistently more successful in attracting mates and thus produce more offspring. If antler size is a heritable trait, what would be the expected long-term outcome for antler size in this deer population, and what process would drive this change?

   Given the variation in antler size, its heritability, and the difference in reproductive success favoring larger antlers, the long-term outcome would be an increase in the frequency of alleles associated with larger antlers in the population. This change would be driven by natural selection, as individuals with larger antlers have higher reproductive success, leading to differential copy success of their alleles.

10. Card 10

    What is the 'unit of selection' according to the perspective presented in the source material, and what role does the individual play in this view?

    According to the source material, the unit of selection is the gene. In this perspective, the individual animal is seen primarily as a 'gene copying machine,' serving as a vehicle for genes to replicate and pass on to subsequent generations.

11. Card 11

    A species of bird exhibits a complex courtship ritual. Researchers want to understand the sequence of genetic and developmental events that lead an individual bird to perform this ritual. Which of Tinbergen's four questions are they addressing, and what type of cause is it?

    The researchers are addressing the 'Development' question, which asks how the behaviour develops, including whether it's learned, present at birth, and which genes are involved. This falls under proximate causes, as it explains the immediate developmental 'how' within an individual's lifetime.

12. Card 12

    A population of insects displays varying levels of resistance to a particular pesticide. Individuals with higher resistance tend to survive and reproduce more effectively in environments where the pesticide is used. If this resistance is genetically determined, what three conditions for evolutionary change are met in this scenario?

    In this scenario, three conditions for evolutionary change are met: 1) Variation, as individuals differ in pesticide resistance. 2) Heredity, assuming resistance is genetically determined and passed to offspring. 3) Differences in reproductive success, as resistant individuals have more surviving offspring due to their trait value in the presence of the pesticide.

13. Card 13

    Explain how the 'Function' question in Tinbergen's framework helps us understand a behaviour from an ultimate perspective.

    The 'Function' question asks how a behaviour promotes survival and reproductive success. By exploring this, it delves into the adaptive value of the behaviour, explaining 'why' it exists in terms of its contribution to an organism's fitness over evolutionary time, thus providing an ultimate explanation.

14. Card 14

    A scientist observes that a particular species of fish has developed a unique camouflage pattern that allows it to blend seamlessly with its environment, helping it evade predators. Which of Tinbergen's four questions is being addressed by this observation, and why?

    This observation addresses the 'Function' question: How does the behaviour promote survival and reproductive success? The camouflage pattern directly contributes to the fish's survival by evading predators, which in turn enhances its chances of reproduction, making it an ultimate explanation for the behaviour.

15. Card 15

    What is the primary distinction between 'ethology' and 'behavioural ecology' as described in the source material?

    Ethology is the science of innate or natural animal behaviour, focusing on observation to understand 'how' behaviours occur in their evolution. Behavioural ecology, in contrast, uses mathematical models to analyze 'why' behaviours occur, specifically focusing on their survival value, fitness, and adaptations to the environment.

16. Card 16

    A researcher is studying a group of primates and notices that young individuals learn specific foraging techniques by observing their elders. Which of Tinbergen's four questions is most directly addressed by this observation, and why is it considered a proximate cause?

    This observation most directly addresses the 'Development' question, specifically whether the behaviour is learned. It is considered a proximate cause because it explains how the behaviour is acquired and develops within an individual's lifetime, rather than its long-term evolutionary 'why'.

17. Card 17

    Konrad Lorenz, Niko Tinbergen, and Karl von Frisch were awarded the Nobel Prize in Medicine in 1973 for their work. What overarching field of study did their contributions significantly advance?

    Their contributions significantly advanced the field of animal behaviour, specifically in the context of an evolutionary approach to understanding behaviour, for which they were recognized with the Nobel Prize in Medicine.

18. Card 18

    A species of bird has a complex song that is crucial for attracting mates. A study reveals that the neural pathways responsible for producing this song develop differently based on the bird's early acoustic environment. How would this finding relate to the 'Genetic-developmental mechanisms' as a proximate cause of behaviour?

    This finding directly relates to 'Genetic-developmental mechanisms' because it highlights how the development of sensory-motor systems (neural pathways for song production) is influenced by gene-environment interactions (early acoustic environment). It explains how heredity and environmental factors shape the behaviour within an individual's lifetime.

19. Card 19

    A scientist is comparing the alarm calls of a prairie dog species with those of a closely related ground squirrel species to understand their evolutionary origins. Which of Tinbergen's four questions is this scientist primarily addressing, and what type of cause is it?

    The scientist is primarily addressing the 'Evolution' question, which asks how the behaviour evolved and how it compares with that of related species. This falls under ultimate causes, as it seeks to understand the historical pathways and intermediate steps in the development of the behaviour over generations.

20. Card 20

    A particular allele in a moth population confers a darker wing coloration. In an industrial area with soot-covered trees, these darker moths are less visible to predators, leading to higher survival rates and more offspring. Explain how this scenario illustrates 'differential copy success of alternative alleles' and its role in evolution.

    This scenario perfectly illustrates 'differential copy success of alternative alleles' because the allele for darker wings allows its carriers (the moths) to have higher reproductive success in the sooty environment compared to moths with lighter wings. Over time, the allele for darker wings will make more copies and gradually displace the competing alleles for lighter wings, leading to a change in allele frequencies in the population, which is evolution.

21. Card 21

    A researcher observes that male peacocks with longer, more elaborate tail feathers tend to attract more mates and produce more offspring. If tail feather length is a heritable trait, how does this observation fulfill the conditions for evolutionary change according to Darwinian theory?

    This observation fulfills the conditions for evolutionary change because: 1) There is 'Variation' in tail feather length among male peacocks. 2) There is 'Heredity,' as tail feather length is a heritable trait. 3) There are 'Differences in reproductive success,' with males having longer, more elaborate tails producing more surviving offspring due to their trait value.

22. Card 22

    What is the role of 'Hormone systems for adjusting responsiveness to environmental stimuli' as a proximate cause of behaviour?

    Hormone systems play a critical role as proximate causes by modulating an animal's physiological state and sensitivity to environmental cues. They help adjust an animal's responsiveness, enabling it to activate or modify behaviour patterns in reaction to changes in its surroundings, thereby directly influencing its immediate behavioural output.

23. Card 23

    A biologist is studying a species of fish that exhibits schooling behavior. She investigates the neural mechanisms in the fish's brain that process visual cues from neighboring fish, allowing them to coordinate their movements. Which proximate cause of behavior is she primarily examining?

    The biologist is primarily examining 'Sensory-motor mechanisms.' Her focus on the neural systems for detecting environmental stimuli (visual cues from other fish) and the skeletal-muscular systems for carrying out responses (coordinated movements) directly aligns with this proximate cause, explaining how the schooling behavior is achieved.

24. Card 24

    Distinguish between 'Historical pathways leading to a current behavioral trait' and 'Selective processes shaping the history of a behavioral trait' as ultimate causes.

    'Historical pathways' refer to the sequence of events and intermediate steps that occurred over evolution, from the origin of a trait to its current form. 'Selective processes,' on the other hand, focus on the past and current usefulness of the behavior in promoting lifetime reproductive success, explaining 'why' those historical pathways were favored and maintained through natural selection.

25. Card 25

    A population of rabbits lives in an environment with varying food availability. Some rabbits are more efficient at foraging, allowing them to obtain more food and, consequently, produce more offspring. If foraging efficiency is a heritable trait, what is the 'ultimate hypothesis' that can be formulated regarding this behavior?

    The ultimate hypothesis would be that efficient foraging behavior evolved because it consistently promoted higher lifetime reproductive success in environments with variable food availability. This is due to the heritable variation in foraging efficiency leading to differential reproductive success, fulfilling the conditions for evolutionary change through natural selection.

26. Card 26

    Explain how the sensory-motor, hormone, and skeletal-muscular systems collectively contribute to an animal's lifetime reproductive success.

    Nervous systems are crucial for detecting environmental stimuli, allowing an animal to perceive its surroundings. Hormone systems then adjust the animal's responsiveness to these stimuli, enabling appropriate physiological and behavioral changes. Finally, skeletal-muscular systems carry out the physical responses, such as movement or specific actions, all of which are integrated to promote behaviors that enhance the individual's ability to reproduce and ensure the survival of its offspring.

27. Card 27

    DEFINITION: Define 'natural selection' and 'evolution' according to the provided evolutionary approach to behavior.

    Natural selection is defined as the differential copy success of alternative alleles, meaning that some alleles are more effectively passed on to subsequent generations. Evolution, in this context, is the resulting change in allele frequencies within a population over time, driven by this differential success.

28. Card 28

    Why is evolutionary change in traits considered inevitable if the three conditions of variation, heredity, and differences in reproductive success are met?

    Evolutionary change is inevitable because variation provides the raw material for selection, heredity ensures that advantageous traits can be passed down, and differences in reproductive success mean that individuals with traits better suited to their environment will produce more surviving offspring. This differential reproduction leads to an increase in the frequency of alleles associated with those advantageous traits in the population over generations, which is the essence of evolution by natural selection.

29. Card 29

    DEFINITION: Distinguish between the 'unit of selection' as the gene versus the group, and provide an example for each.

    When the unit of selection is the gene, the individual is seen merely as a 'gene copying machine,' meaning selection acts directly on the alleles that maximize their own replication. An example is an allele that confers higher reproductive success on its carrier, displacing competing alleles. When the unit of selection is the group, individuals behave in the interest of their group, often at a cost to themselves, with selection choosing between groups based on how well individuals serve group interests. An example is honey bees sacrificing their own reproduction for the good of the colony.

30. Card 30

    A population of ground squirrels lives in an area with limited food. Some squirrels have a genetic predisposition to forage less aggressively, leaving more food for others, while others are aggressive foragers. If group selection were the primary force, what outcome would be expected, and what would happen if a 'cheater' mutation arose?

    If group selection were the primary force, it might favor the less aggressive foragers, as their behavior could lead to better resource management for the entire group, increasing the group's overall survival. However, if a 'mutant cheater' arose that ate more than its share, this individual would likely reproduce more successfully due to increased food intake. This mutation would then increase in allele frequency, potentially displacing the 'altruistic' alleles, illustrating why natural selection often favors selfish individuals over group-benefiting ones.

31. Card 31

    Why does the concept of 'selfish cheaters' pose a significant problem for the theory of group selection, particularly in the context of altruism?

    The concept of 'selfish cheaters' undermines group selection because natural selection at the individual or gene level favors traits that increase an individual's own reproductive success. If an individual with a mutation for 'cheating' (e.g., eating more food when others restrict intake) gains a reproductive advantage, that mutation will spread. This makes it difficult for altruistic traits, which benefit the group at a cost to the individual, to persist unless specific conditions like kin selection are met, as the 'cheater' allele will outcompete the altruistic one.

32. Card 32

    DEFINITION: Explain the 'Quicker Reproduction (QR) hypothesis' as a potential adaptive value for infanticide in langurs.

    The Quicker Reproduction (QR) hypothesis suggests that when a nursing infant is killed, the mother may resume her reproductive cycle sooner than she would otherwise. This allows the infanticidal male to impregnate her more quickly, leading to him leaving more descendants as a result. Thus, infanticide, though seemingly costly, could be an adaptive strategy for the new male to accelerate his own reproductive success.

33. Card 33

    How did observations regarding the timing and location of infanticide in langurs challenge the 'Social Pathology (SP)' and 'Population Recovery (PR)' hypotheses?

    Observations challenged the SP and PR hypotheses because infanticide was not found to occur more frequently at high population densities. The SP hypothesis posited that high densities cause males to become hyper-aggressive, leading to infant attacks. The PR hypothesis suggested self-sacrificing males kill infants to prevent overcrowding and resource depletion. The lack of correlation between infanticide rates and population density directly contradicted the core premise of both these hypotheses.

34. Card 34

    A researcher observes a new male langur taking over a group of females and subsequently killing the existing infants. The researcher notes that the females quickly become sexually receptive to the new male. Which hypothesis for infanticide is most strongly supported by these observations, and why?

    These observations most strongly support the Quicker Reproduction (QR) hypothesis. The fact that infanticide occurs soon after a group takeover, combined with the females promptly resuming sexual cycling and becoming receptive to the new male, aligns perfectly with the QR hypothesis. This hypothesis suggests that killing infants allows mothers to become fertile sooner, enabling the infanticidal male to sire his own offspring more quickly and increase his reproductive success.

35. Card 35

    What evidence from the langur infanticide study specifically refuted the 'Cannibalism (C) hypothesis'?

    The 'Cannibalism (C) hypothesis' was refuted by the observation that males do not consume the infants they kill. This hypothesis proposed that males kill infants after taking over a band of females to eat them, thereby replenishing depleted reserves from the takeover struggle. The direct lack of consumption of the killed infants contradicts this proposed adaptive value.

36. Card 36

    Why is the observation that males do not kill their own offspring considered strong support for the 'Quicker Reproduction (QR) hypothesis' for infanticide?

    The observation that males do not kill their own offspring strongly supports the Quicker Reproduction (QR) hypothesis because it indicates that infanticide is a selective strategy aimed at increasing the killer's reproductive success, rather than a non-adaptive aggression or resource management tactic. If a male kills infants that are not his own, it removes genetic competition and frees the mother to bear his offspring sooner. Killing his own offspring would directly reduce his reproductive success, which would be maladaptive under this hypothesis.

37. Card 37

    DEFINITION: According to Edwards (1962), what is the core principle of group selection?

    According to Edwards (1962), the core principle of group selection is that individuals behave in the interest of their group, often at a cost to themselves. Group selection then chooses between groups based on how well their individuals serve the group's interests, thereby increasing the ability of the group to survive.

38. Card 38

    Under what specific conditions is group selection considered most likely to work, despite its general problems with 'selfish cheaters'?

    Group selection is considered most likely to work when groups are isolated from each other and differ genetically in ways that affect their chances to survive locally. This isolation and genetic differentiation can reduce the influx of 'selfish cheater' genes from other groups, allowing group-benefiting traits to persist within the isolated group. However, even under these conditions, it is generally believed to be much less important than natural selection at the individual or gene level.

39. Card 39

    Imagine a species of bird where some individuals emit a loud alarm call when a predator approaches, warning the entire flock but drawing attention to themselves. If this behavior is driven by group selection, what would be the assumed benefit to the individual caller, and what is the evolutionary challenge for this trait?

    If this alarm call behavior were driven by group selection, the assumed benefit to the individual caller would be indirect, through the increased survival of the group, which might ultimately benefit the caller's genes if it's part of a genetically similar group. However, the evolutionary challenge is that the individual caller incurs a direct cost (increased risk of predation) while benefiting others. A 'selfish cheater' mutation that allowed an individual to benefit from others' calls without making its own would be favored by individual selection, making the spread of the altruistic alarm call difficult unless other factors like kin selection are involved.

40. Card 40

    How do genes and alleles relate to the shaping of traits within a species, and what role does competition play at the genetic level?

    Genes code for proteins that ultimately shape traits within a species. Within a species' gene pool, genes may exist in two or more forms called alleles, with different alleles potentially coding for different proteins, leading to variation in traits. Competition occurs between these alleles at a given locus on the chromosomes; the allele that leads to higher reproductive success for its carrier will gradually make more copies and displace its competing alleles in the population.

41. Card 41

    DEFINITION: What is the 'Social Pathology (SP) hypothesis' regarding infanticide, and what observation contradicted it?

    The Social Pathology (SP) hypothesis suggests that males in high-density populations become hyper-aggressive, leading them to attack infants. This hypothesis was contradicted by the observation that infanticide does not occur more frequently at high population densities.

42. Card 42

    How does the concept of 'differential copy success of alternative alleles' explain the mechanism of natural selection?

    The concept of 'differential copy success of alternative alleles' explains natural selection by highlighting that alleles are not copied equally across generations. Those alleles that confer a reproductive advantage to their carriers, leading to more surviving offspring, will be copied more frequently. Over time, this differential success in replication causes the frequency of these advantageous alleles to increase in the population, while less successful alleles decrease, thereby driving evolutionary change.

43. Card 43

    A population of insects shows variation in wing length, which is a heritable trait. In a particular year, a strong wind current favors individuals with shorter wings, allowing them to fly more efficiently and lay more eggs. Explain how this scenario illustrates the three conditions for evolutionary change and the process of natural selection.

    This scenario illustrates the three conditions for evolutionary change: 'variation' exists in wing length among the insects; 'heredity' is present as wing length is a heritable trait passed to offspring; and 'differences in reproductive success' occur because shorter-winged individuals lay more eggs due to better flight efficiency in the windy conditions. The process of natural selection is at play because the environmental pressure (strong wind) selectively favors the shorter-winged trait, leading to differential reproductive success. Consequently, the alleles for shorter wings will increase in frequency in the population over time, leading to evolution.

44. Card 44

    Why is the current view on group selection that it is 'likely much less important than natural selection at the individual/gene level'?

    The current view holds that group selection is less important because natural selection at the individual or gene level is a more potent force. Individual selection consistently favors traits that enhance an individual's own reproductive success, even if these traits are detrimental to the group. The problem of 'selfish cheaters' demonstrates how individual-level advantages can quickly undermine group-level benefits, making it difficult for truly altruistic group-selected traits to persist unless specific, often rare, conditions like extreme group isolation and genetic differentiation are met.

45. Card 45

    DEFINITION: What is the 'Population Recovery (PR) hypothesis' for infanticide, and why was it ultimately rejected based on research findings?

    The Population Recovery (PR) hypothesis suggested that self-sacrificing males take the risk of killing infants to avoid overcrowding, which would otherwise result in the depletion of resources and population extinction. This hypothesis was rejected because research findings showed that infanticide does not occur more frequently at high population densities, which would be expected if its purpose was to manage population size and resources.

46. Card 46

    How do the nervous, hormone, and skeletal-muscular systems interact to allow an animal to respond effectively to a perceived threat?

    When an animal perceives a threat, the nervous system detects the environmental stimuli (e.g., sight or sound of a predator) and processes this information. The hormone system then adjusts the animal's internal state and responsiveness, such as releasing stress hormones to prepare for 'fight or flight.' Finally, the skeletal-muscular system executes the physical response, like running away or engaging in defensive posturing, all coordinated to maximize the animal's chances of survival and, indirectly, reproductive success.

47. Card 47

    A new male lion takes over a pride. Shortly after, several young cubs disappear. Subsequent observations show that the mothers of these cubs quickly come into estrus and are impregnated by the new male. What specific findings from the langur infanticide study are mirrored in this lion scenario, and what hypothesis do they support?

    This lion scenario mirrors several key findings from the langur infanticide study. The disappearance of young cubs soon after a new male takes over the group, combined with the mothers promptly resuming sexual cycling and becoming receptive to the new male, directly supports the Quicker Reproduction (QR) hypothesis. This suggests that the new male's actions accelerate the mothers' return to fertility, allowing him to sire his own offspring sooner and increase his reproductive success.

48. Card 48

    What is the 'adaptive value' problem associated with infanticide, particularly concerning individual reproductive success and risk?

    The 'adaptive value' problem with infanticide arises because it does not immediately appear to increase an individual's reproductive success and also increases the risk of the male being wounded during the act. From an individual selection perspective, a behavior that is costly and seemingly not directly beneficial to the individual's own reproduction presents a challenge to explain its persistence, requiring specific hypotheses to demonstrate its indirect or delayed adaptive benefits.

49. Card 49

    DEFINITION: What is meant by 'allele frequency,' and how does evolution relate to it?

    'Allele frequency' refers to the proportion of a specific allele (a form of a gene) within a population's gene pool. Evolution, in the context of the provided material, is defined as the change in these allele frequencies in a population through time. This change is typically driven by processes like natural selection, where certain alleles become more or less common due to their impact on reproductive success.

50. Card 50

    Why is the unit of selection being the 'gene' considered a powerful concept in evolutionary biology, particularly when discussing individual behavior?

    The unit of selection being the 'gene' is powerful because it provides a clear mechanism for evolutionary change: alleles that promote their own replication, even if at a perceived cost to the individual, will spread. This perspective helps explain seemingly altruistic behaviors by showing how genes can 'manipulate' individual organisms (gene copying machines) to ensure their own propagation, such as in kin selection where an individual might help relatives who share copies of the same genes.

More flashcard decks

• Thermochemistry and Thermodynamics flashcards (149 cards)
• Género Bacillus y Clostridium flashcards (100 cards)
• Ψηφιακά Παιχνίδια και Μάθηση flashcards (100 cards)
• Philosophy AS flashcards (100 cards)
• Nervous system flashcards (100 cards)
• ECG, IGEL and Iv flashcards (100 cards)

Browse every shared deck