Qualitative Research flashcards

All 50 cards

1. Card 1

   Define 'Grounded Theory' as a qualitative study approach and explain its primary goal.

   Grounded Theory is a qualitative study approach that aims to generate new understandings and hypotheses directly from the data collected. Its primary goal is to build theory that emerges from the field, rather than starting with a preconceived theoretical framework.

2. Card 2

   Distinguish between 'anecdotal evidence' and 'qualitative evidence' based on the research process.

   Anecdotal evidence consists of stories collected without care, stored without a system, and shared without analysis. In contrast, qualitative evidence involves stories, photos, videos, and fieldnotes collected with precision, stored systematically, and shared only after immense consideration and analysis.

3. Card 3

   What is the 'causes-of-effects' approach in qualitative research, and why is it adopted?

   The 'causes-of-effects' approach involves starting with observed outcomes and then working backward to identify their underlying causes. Qualitative analysts adopt this approach to explain phenomena like historical events or exceptional growth, by exploring the factors that led to a specific result.

4. Card 4

   Explain the concept of 'Reflexivity' in qualitative research and how researchers practice it.

   Reflexivity is the practice of reviewing how the researcher's own positionality and biases might impact their research process and findings. Researchers practice it by disclosing their positions and epistemological standpoint, incorporating diverse perspectives in shaping research, and using data validation techniques like triangulation.

5. Card 5

   Which of the following best describes the role of qualitative methods in policy-making, according to the provided notes?

   C. They assist in understanding constituents' needs, interpretations of reality, and placing communities at the center. Qualitative methods help uncover the unknown about populations of interest, break down outdated paradigms about 'average' behavior, and can place communities at the center of the policy-making process.

6. Card 6

   Describe the 'Extended Case Method' approach to qualitative study design and how it differs from Grounded Theory.

   The Extended Case Method begins with an existing hypothesis or theory and seeks to confirm or refine it through empirical data. It differs from Grounded Theory, which aims to generate new understandings and hypotheses directly from the field, by starting with a pre-existing theoretical framework rather than building theory upward from data.

7. Card 7

   What are the core obligations researchers have to participants, particularly concerning 'Voluntary, Informed Consent'?

   Core obligations include beneficence, confidentiality, transparency, honesty, justice, and respecting participants' rights to withdraw. Voluntary, Informed Consent is an ongoing process ensuring participants fully understand the study's nature, risks, and benefits, and freely agree to participate without coercion, with this understanding maintained throughout the research.

8. Card 8

   Define 'Epistemology' and 'Positionality' and explain how they relate to a researcher's approach to 'truth'.

   Epistemology is the theory on the nature of human knowledge, addressing what 'truth' is and how it can be known. Positionality refers to the social and political context that creates a researcher's identity, which may impact all components of the research process. A researcher's positionality influences their epistemological standpoint, affecting how they perceive and seek 'truth' in their research.

9. Card 9

   Explain the distinction between 'Probability Sampling' and 'Purposeful Sampling' in qualitative research, and provide an example of when each might be used.

   Probability sampling involves randomly selecting individuals or subgroups from a population, allowing for generalization from the sample to the population. Purposeful sampling, conversely, involves intentionally selecting 'information-rich cases' who are particularly knowledgeable about the research topic. Probability sampling might be used in a large-scale survey aiming for representativeness, while purposeful sampling, such as snowball sampling, is ideal for studying hard-to-reach populations or specific communities.

10. Card 10

    What are the three phases of 'seeing' in participant observation, and what is the focus of each phase?

    The three phases are Description, Analysis, and Interpretation. Description focuses on objectively stating what is seen, heard, or smelled without evaluation. Analysis involves identifying patterns, relationships, and how things are organized. Interpretation seeks to understand the meaning, social logic, and implications of the observed patterns.

11. Card 11

    According to the notes, what is a key limitation of 'Non-participatory observation' compared to more involved levels of participation?

    B. It limits the ability to establish rapport or ask questions as new information arises. With no contact with the population, the researcher cannot build rapport, clarify observations, or delve deeper into emerging insights during the research.

12. Card 12

    Describe the 'Critical Theory' paradigm and how it views the concept of 'truth' and the role of the researcher's values.

    Critical Theory posits that 'truth' is a real social construction and emphasizes the need to revise how truth has been historically rendered. Within this paradigm, the values of the researcher cannot be removed from the research process, acknowledging that subjectivity and social context inherently shape understanding.

13. Card 13

    What is the primary goal of 'Participant Observation' in qualitative research, and what does it aim to understand?

    The primary goal of Participant Observation is the intensive, usually long-term examination of a social group or organization, where the researcher becomes both a participant and an observer. It aims to understand behavior, how people navigate social life, make meaning, and act within their specific context.

14. Card 14

    Explain the ethical considerations related to 'Confidentiality' and 'Anonymity' in qualitative research, and why they are important for participant safety.

    Confidentiality means protecting the identity of participants and ensuring that any information they share is not linked back to them. Anonymity means that even the researcher cannot identify the participant. Both are crucial for participant safety as they encourage honest disclosure, prevent harm from sensitive information, and uphold trust in the research process.

15. Card 15

    Why is 'Convenience Sampling' considered problematic in qualitative research, and what are its potential negative impacts?

    Convenience sampling is problematic because it selects cases based on ease and accessibility, leading to the poorest scientific rationale and lowest credibility. Its potential negative impacts include biasing the respondents, failing to provide diverse perspectives, and potentially damaging long-term relationships if the research is perceived as unrigorous or exploitative.

16. Card 16

    In the context of qualitative research for policy, how do these methods assist in breaking down outdated paradigms?

    Qualitative methods assist in breaking down outdated paradigms by moving beyond notions of 'average' behavior and 'generalized' trends. They achieve this by getting specific about the needs, interpretations of reality, and unique experiences of constituents, thereby challenging broad assumptions with nuanced, in-depth understanding.

17. Card 17

    Identify two distinct data collection methods listed in the notes, and briefly describe what each entails.

    Two distinct data collection methods are Ethnography/Participant Observation and Interviews. Ethnography involves an intensive, long-term examination of a social group where the researcher becomes a participant and observer. Interviews involve participants describing their experiences and the meaning of events in their lives, often allowing for flexible probing to elicit rich, nuanced data.

18. Card 18

    When gaining access to hard-to-reach populations, what roles do 'gatekeepers' and 'key informants' play?

    When gaining access to hard-to-reach populations, gatekeepers are individuals with special status who can grant or deny access to a group or community. Key informants are individuals most knowledgeable about the group, who can provide crucial insights, facilitate introductions, and help the researcher understand the social dynamics and norms.

19. Card 19

    What is the primary difference in the researcher's starting point and goal between 'Grounded Theory' and 'Extended Case Method'?

    In Grounded Theory, the researcher enters with open questions, and theory comes from the field, moving upward with the goal of generating new understandings. In contrast, with the Extended Case Method, the researcher enters with a theoretical framework to test, and theory comes from existing literature, moving downward with the goal of confirming or refining that existing theory.

20. Card 20

    Which of the following best describes the 'Positivism' paradigm in relation to 'truth' and researcher objectivity?

    C. Truth can be scientifically verified, and researchers must be objective. Positivism holds that truth is empirically discoverable through scientific methods, demanding that researchers maintain an objective stance to capture it accurately.

21. Card 21

    Why is it important for researchers to 'stress-test, disprove and validate preliminary findings' as part of the qualitative research process?

    It is important to stress-test, disprove, and validate preliminary findings to ensure the rigor and credibility of the research. This step helps researchers challenge their own assumptions, identify potential biases, and strengthen the robustness of their conclusions before finalizing data analysis and reporting results, making the findings more trustworthy.

22. Card 22

    What does the phrase 'Your positionality is sometimes your entrée' mean in the context of gaining access for participant observation?

    This phrase means that a researcher's social and political context, identity, or existing connections (their positionality) can sometimes be a legitimate way to gain initial access to a community or group for observation. Rather than being a barrier, their background or relationships can open doors and build initial trust.

23. Card 23

    Explain why 'Mixed Methods' research is seen as offering 'the best of both worlds' in qualitative inquiry.

    Mixed methods research combines qualitative and quantitative approaches, offering 'the best of both worlds' by leveraging the strengths of each. It allows researchers to describe phenomena and observe behavior (qualitative) while also potentially expressing qualitative data numerically (quantitative), providing a more comprehensive and nuanced understanding of complex social issues.

24. Card 24

    What are the potential risks of 'Complete participation' in participant observation, particularly concerning objectivity and reporting?

    The potential risks of 'Complete participation' include losing all levels of objectivity due to full integration into the population. There is also a significant risk of being judged or criticized for what is analyzed and presented to the public, as the researcher is deeply embedded and may be seen as betraying trust or misrepresenting the community from an 'insider' perspective.

25. Card 25

    How does the 'Mindful Ethics' approach suggest researchers address participant comfort regarding interview location and family presence?

    The 'Mindful Ethics' approach acknowledges that some respondents may prefer to tell a secret or have their experiences affirmed. Regarding location, it recognizes that some participants will state their homes are most comfortable, especially with their families present. This suggests researchers should prioritize participant comfort and preferences when deciding on interview settings.

26. Card 26

    Define 'positionality statement' and explain its importance in qualitative research, especially when dealing with researcher biases.

    A positionality statement is an explicit declaration by the researcher of their own social, political, and epistemological standpoints. It's crucial in qualitative research because it acknowledges that the researcher's values and experiences cannot be entirely removed from the research process, thus increasing transparency and allowing readers to understand potential biases influencing data collection and analysis.

27. Card 27

    What is the primary goal of participant observation in qualitative research?

    The primary goal of participant observation is to conduct an intensive, often long-term, examination of a social group or organization by becoming a participant and observer in the lives of its members. This method aims to observe behavior, understand how individuals navigate social life, make meaning, and act within their specific context, providing deep, contextualized insights.

28. Card 28

    Distinguish between 'jottings' and 'field notes' in the context of qualitative data collection.

    Jottings are brief, in-the-moment notes taken during observation, serving as memory aids. Field notes, on the other hand, are comprehensive records written as soon as possible after leaving the research site. Field notes expand on jottings, including detailed descriptions, direct quotes, researcher reactions, preliminary analysis, and reflections on what was not captured.

29. Card 29

    Explain the concept of 'Mindful Ethics' in qualitative research, particularly concerning respondents' needs.

    Mindful Ethics acknowledges that research participants may have personal motivations for sharing their experiences, such as wanting to tell a secret or seeking affirmation. It also considers practical aspects like participant comfort regarding the interview location. This approach emphasizes being aware of and responsive to these nuanced needs beyond standard ethical protocols.

30. Card 30

    What are the 'Three Phases of Seeing' in qualitative observation, and how do they progress from raw data to deeper understanding?

    The Three Phases of Seeing are Description, Analysis, and Interpretation. Description involves objectively recording what is seen, heard, or smelled without evaluation. Analysis then identifies patterns and relationships within these observations. Finally, Interpretation seeks to understand the meaning and social logic behind the observed patterns, moving from 'what' to 'how' to 'why'.

31. Card 31

    Why is 'Voluntary, Informed Consent' described as an 'Ongoing Process' in qualitative research?

    Voluntary, Informed Consent is an ongoing process because participants' understanding and willingness to participate can change throughout a long-term qualitative study. Researchers must continually ensure participants still consent, understand the evolving nature of the research, and are aware of their rights, including the right to withdraw, adapting as the research relationship develops.

32. Card 32

    Which of the following best describes the 'Ethnographic Trial' as a tool for strengthening validity in ethnography?

    B. Imagining a cross-examination by those whose testimony might destabilize your argument. The Ethnographic Trial involves envisioning critical witnesses who were not interviewed and considering if their testimony would challenge or invalidate the research findings, thereby identifying potential validity problems.

33. Card 33

    In the context of focus groups, what is the recommended group size for allowing more nuance, disagreement, and quieter voices to emerge?

    C. 3-5 people. The notes suggest that a recommended group size of 3-5 people allows more room for nuance, disagreement, and quieter voices, making it especially good for children and vulnerable groups.

34. Card 34

    According to Mario Small, what is the interviewer's goal concerning representativeness and scale in qualitative research?

    B. To reach saturation by seeking new data until the last case provides little new information, and then seeking falsifying cases. Mario Small emphasizes reaching saturation, where new cases yield minimal new information, and then actively seeking out falsifying cases to test the robustness of emerging arguments, rather than focusing on statistical generalizability.

35. Card 35

    What is the key distinction between 'Inductive Coding' and 'Deductive Coding' in qualitative data analysis?

    C. Inductive coding moves from observation to theory, while deductive coding moves from theory to observation. Inductive coding involves developing patterns and hypotheses from the data to build a theory (Information → Pattern → Hypothesis → Theory), typically used in the first round of analysis. Deductive coding starts with an existing theory or hypothesis and tests it against the data (Theory → Hypothesis → Observation → Confirmation), often used in subsequent rounds.

36. Card 36

    Why is 'Inconvenience Sampling' considered a crucial tool for strengthening validity in ethnographic research?

    Inconvenience sampling strengthens validity by actively seeking out individuals, perspectives, or phenomena that are hardest to access and most likely to challenge the researcher's emerging arguments. If these challenging perspectives are included and the argument still holds, its validity is significantly enhanced. If they cannot be reached, explicitly naming this gap allows readers to assess the limitations of the claims.

37. Card 37

    What are the core obligations researchers have to their participants?

    Researchers have several core obligations, including beneficence (doing good), ensuring voluntary and ongoing informed consent, maintaining confidentiality, practicing transparency and honesty, upholding justice, protecting vulnerable populations, and respecting participants' rights to withdraw from the study at any time.

38. Card 38

    When asking for permission to conduct participant observation, why is 'persistence' described as a method?

    Persistence is a method because gaining access for participant observation is often a multi-step process that rarely succeeds with a single attempt. It acknowledges that initial rejections are common and that continued, respectful engagement and follow-up are often necessary to build trust and eventually secure permission, rather than assuming a single email or contact is sufficient.

39. Card 39

    Describe the role of an 'Institutional Review Board (IRB)' in qualitative research.

    An Institutional Review Board (IRB) is a committee that reviews research proposals involving human subjects to ensure they adhere to ethical guidelines and protect participants' rights and welfare. The IRB's role is to minimize risks to participants, ensure informed consent, maintain confidentiality, and uphold ethical standards mandated by law and institutional policy.

40. Card 40

    What are 'Trauma-informed techniques' in an ethical toolkit for qualitative research?

    Trauma-informed techniques are methods and approaches used by researchers to avoid re-traumatizing participants who may have experienced trauma. This includes creating a safe and supportive environment, being aware of potential triggers, offering choices and control to participants, and ensuring sensitivity in questioning and interaction, recognizing the potential impact of research on individuals' well-being.

41. Card 41

    How does 'moderate participation' differ from 'active participation' in the levels of involvement for participant observation, and what are its advantages?

    Moderate participation involves the researcher maintaining a careful balance between being an 'insider' and an 'outsider,' engaging sufficiently to build rapport but retaining enough detachment for objectivity. Active participation involves fully embracing the group's skills and customs, becoming a member. The advantage of moderate participation is that it allows for a good combination of involvement and necessary detachment, minimizing the risk of losing objectivity inherent in higher levels of participation.

42. Card 42

    What is the purpose of asking the 'Three Questions to Find a Pattern' (Conditions, Variation, Next Visit) during qualitative analysis?

    These three questions serve to systematically test and refine emerging patterns in qualitative data. 'Conditions' helps identify when a pattern appears or doesn't, 'Variation' checks if it's consistent across different contexts, and 'Next Visit' prompts reflection on what further evidence is needed to confirm the pattern's validity, moving beyond anecdotal observations to robust findings.

43. Card 43

    When are interviews particularly good for exploring 'emotional states'?

    Interviews are particularly effective for exploring emotional states when researchers want to understand participants' feelings, reactions, and subjective experiences regarding specific topics, events, or concepts. Open-ended questions allow participants to articulate how they feel, the intensity of those feelings, and the underlying reasons, providing deep qualitative insights into their emotional landscapes.

44. Card 44

    Why is 'avoiding convenience sampling' listed as a component of an ethical toolkit for qualitative research?

    Avoiding convenience sampling is crucial for ethical research because it helps prevent biases and ensures a more representative understanding of the phenomenon. Relying solely on easily accessible participants can lead to skewed data and findings that do not accurately reflect the broader population or diverse perspectives, thus compromising the justice and validity of the research.

45. Card 45

    What is the primary strength of focus groups that makes them valuable for generating insights not available in individual interviews?

    The primary strength of focus groups is that group interaction produces insights unavailable in individual interviews. Participants can build on each other's ideas, clarify their own views by hearing others, and sometimes feel emboldened to share things they might not disclose alone. This dynamic interaction fosters a collective exploration of topics, revealing shared understandings, disagreements, and nuances that emerge from social dialogue.

46. Card 46

    Which of the following is NOT a recommended technique for formulating interview questions?

    C. Leading. Leading questions are not recommended because they can subtly guide participants toward a particular answer, compromising the authenticity and validity of their responses. Interview questions should be jargon-free, open-ended, single-barreled, preamble-free, and progressive in nature to elicit genuine and unbiased information.

47. Card 47

    What does 'reaching saturation' mean in the context of an interviewer's goal, according to Mario Small?

    Reaching saturation means continuing to seek new data until the last cases provide very little new or surprising information. The goal is that if the study is conducted properly, new interviews or observations will largely replicate prior findings, indicating that the researcher has gathered a comprehensive understanding of the phenomenon within the scope of their study.

48. Card 48

    Explain the concept of 'Confidentiality' versus 'Anonymity' in qualitative research and why both are important for participant safety.

    Confidentiality means that the researcher knows the participant's identity but promises not to disclose it to others, protecting their personal information. Anonymity means that even the researcher does not know the participant's identity, making it impossible to link data to an individual. Both are important for participant safety as they reduce the risk of harm (e.g., social stigma, legal repercussions) by ensuring that sensitive information shared during research cannot be traced back to the individual.

49. Card 49

    Why is 'qualitative coding' described as the process by which researchers move beyond journalism to social science?

    Qualitative coding transforms raw data into structured, analyzable information, moving beyond mere descriptive reporting (journalism) to systematic social scientific inquiry. It organizes data, identifies patterns, makes reasoning visible and defensible, and enables the discovery of co-occurrences and themes. This systematic approach increases validity and transparency, allowing researchers to build and test theories about social phenomena.

50. Card 50

    What is the potential risk associated with 'complete participation' in participant observation, regarding objectivity and public perception?

    The potential risk with 'complete participation' is losing all levels of objectivity, as the researcher is fully integrated into the population, often having lived in the community beforehand. This deep immersion can make it challenging to maintain the necessary critical distance for analysis. There's also a risk of being judged or criticized by the community for what is analyzed and presented to the public, potentially damaging relationships or trust.

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