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water, fluid, and electrolye balance flashcards
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Card 1
Define fluid balance.
Fluid balance refers to maintaining the appropriate volume and concentration of the body's intracellular and extracellular fluids. It is crucial for overall homeostasis.
Card 2
What is the principle of mass balance as it applies to water in the body?
The principle of mass balance states that what is gained must equal what is lost. For water, this means the total water intake should balance the total water output to maintain equilibrium.
Card 3
Which of the following is NOT considered a body fluid according to the provided notes? A) Blood plasma B) Interstitial fluid C) Cerebrospinal fluid D) Bone marrow
D) Bone marrow. The notes list blood plasma, interstitial fluid, cerebrospinal fluid, lymph, and exocrine secretions as body fluids.
Card 4
Why is the relationship between water and electrolytes considered unique and special for homeostasis?
For homeostasis, both water and electrolyte balance must be maintained. A change in the concentration of one directly influences the concentration of the other, highlighting their interconnectedness.
Card 5
What are the two main fluid compartments in the body?
The two main fluid compartments are intracellular fluid, which is water and electrolytes enclosed by the cell membrane, and extracellular fluid, which is all fluid outside the cells.
Card 6
Where is interstitial fluid found?
Interstitial fluid is found in the tissue spaces, making it a component of the extracellular fluid.
Card 7
What is hydrostatic pressure's role in fluid movement between capillaries and interstitial fluid?
Hydrostatic pressure, particularly in plasma, is higher than that of interstitial fluid, which normally forces water out of the capillary at the arterial end.
Card 8
How does hypotonic Extra cellular fluid affect a cell?
Hypotonic extra cellular Fluid causes a cell to gain water and swell because the solute concentration outside the cell is lower than inside, leading to water moving into the cell by osmosis.
Card 9
What is obligatory water loss?
Obligatory water loss is the minimum amount of urine that must be produced each day, irrespective of fluid intake, to prevent the buildup of toxic substances and electrolyte imbalance.
Card 10
Which of the following contributes to sensible water loss? A) Sweating B) Expiration C) Urine output D) Metabolic water
C) Urine output. Sensible water loss includes urine output and water lost through feces, which are measurable losses.
Card 11
What is metabolic water?
Metabolic water is water formed as a byproduct of several catabolic reactions within the body, contributing to the body's daily water gain.
Card 12
Approximately how much water is gained daily from food sources?
Water from food totals about 750 ml per day, contributing significantly to the body's overall water intake.
Card 13
Which part of the brain controls the thirst mechanism?
The thirst mechanism is controlled by the hypothalamus, which detects changes in plasma osmolarity through osmoreceptors.
Card 14
What is the most potent stimulus for triggering thirst?
The most potent stimulus for triggering thirst is an increase in the osmolarity of the plasma, detected by osmoreceptors in the hypothalamus.
Card 15
How does an increase in solute concentration of the ECF trigger thirst?
An increase in solute concentration of the ECF causes water to move out of the osmoreceptors, which then triggers the sensation of thirst.
Card 16
What is the main target tissue for antidiuretic hormone (ADH)?
The main target tissue for antidiuretic hormone (ADH) is the cells of the distal tubule and collecting duct in the kidneys.
Card 17
How does ADH help in reabsorbing water from the kidneys?
ADH triggers the insertion of aquaporins into the plasma membranes of cells in the distal tubule and collecting duct, which allows for increased reabsorption of water from the kidneys.
Card 18
What are some common causes of dehydration?
Common causes of dehydration include profuse sweating, prolonged diarrhea and/or vomiting, certain endocrine disorders, and the overuse of diuretics.
Card 19
What are the initial symptoms a person experiences during dehydration?
Initially, a person experiencing dehydration typically experiences a dry mouth and thirst, which can progress to dryness of skin and decreased urine production.
Card 20
What happens to a cell in hypertonic ECF?
In hypertonic ECF, a cell will lose water and shrivel because the solute concentration outside the cell is higher than inside, causing water to move out of the cell by osmosis.
Card 21
What is the approximate daily total of insensible water loss?
Insensible water loss totals approximately 900 ml per day, comprising 600 ml from the skin (sweating and evaporation) and 300 ml during expiration.
Card 22
What is hypovolemia?
Hypovolemia is an isosmotic fluid imbalance where there is fluid depletion, meaning solutes and water are lost in equal proportions, leading to no osmotic pressure to pull water in or out of cells.
Card 23
What is a common example of hypervolemia?
A common example of hypervolemia is edema, where the ECF volume increases without a significant change in osmotic pressure.
Card 24
How does the body normally prevent hypotonic hydration when water is consumed?
When water is consumed, hypotonic hydration is normally prevented by a decline in ADH production, which reduces water reabsorption and allows for more water excretion.
Card 25
What can cellular swelling and hyponatremia lead to during overhydration?
During overhydration, cellular swelling and hyponatremia (due to dilution of ECF sodium) can lead to swelling of neurons, causing mental status changes, seizures, coma, and potentially death.
Card 26
Define dehydration and list some common causes.
Dehydration is a condition characterized by decreased volume and increased concentration of ECF. Common causes include profuse sweating, prolonged diarrhea and/or vomiting, certain endocrine disorders, and overuse of diuretics.
Card 27
Which hormone triggers the insertion of aquaporins into the plasma membranes of distal tubule and collecting duct cells, allowing for water reabsorption?
Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) is responsible for triggering the insertion of aquaporins, which facilitates the reabsorption of water from the kidneys.
Card 28
What is hyponatremia and what can cause it?
Hyponatremia is a condition where the sodium ion concentration in the ECF is decreased, often due to overhydration or hypersecretion of ADH. This can lead to cellular swelling and neurological symptoms.
Card 29
What is the primary role of the Na+/K+ ATPase pump concerning sodium ions?
The Na+/K+ ATPase pump is crucial for maintaining the high concentration of sodium ions in the extracellular fluid and a low concentration within the cytosol, which is vital for osmotic balance and cell function.
Card 30
Which of the following hormones decreases sodium ion reabsorption?
C. Atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP) decreases sodium ion reabsorption, counteracting the effects of angiotensin II and aldosterone.
Card 31
How does hyperkalemia affect the resting membrane potential of cells?
Hyperkalemia can alter the resting membrane potential, making cells more excitable. In severe cases, the membrane can become so depolarized at rest that cells become non-excitable, potentially leading to death.
Card 32
What is hypovolemia and how does it differ from dehydration in terms of osmotic pressure?
Hypovolemia is an isosmotic fluid imbalance where both solutes and water are lost in equal proportions, typically due to blood loss. Unlike dehydration, there is no significant osmotic pressure to pull water in or out of cells.
Card 33
What are the main components of osseous tissue that are also critical electrolytes?
Calcium and phosphate ions are the main components of osseous tissue. Calcium is also essential for muscle contraction, blood clotting, and neuron signaling, while phosphate is integral to ATP structure.
Card 34
Why is the high concentration of sodium ions in the ECF important?
The high concentration of sodium ions in the ECF makes them one of the most important types of osmotic particles, playing a critical role in regulating water movement and maintaining fluid balance.
Card 35
Which systems are most critical for the maintenance of electrolyte balance in the body?
The endocrine and urinary systems are the most critical for maintaining electrolyte balance in the body, regulating the levels of ions such as sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, and chloride.
Card 36
What is the primary consequence of overhydration on the extracellular fluid (ECF)?
Overhydration leads to an increased volume of ECF and decreased osmolarity. This results in electrolyte imbalances due to dilution, particularly affecting sodium ion concentration and leading to hyponatremia.
Card 37
What is the effect of Digoxin on the Na+/K+ pump and what imbalance can it cause?
Digoxin blocks the functioning of the Na+/K+ pump in cardiac muscle cells, which lengthens action potentials. A main symptom of Digoxin toxicity is hyperkalemia, where potassium ions are concentrated in the wrong compartment.
Card 38
Which of the following is NOT one of the four hormones that regulate fluid balance?
C. Insulin is not listed as one of the four hormones that primarily regulate fluid balance; ADH, Angiotensin II, Aldosterone, and Atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP) are.
Card 39
What happens to cells during hypernatremia and why?
During hypernatremia, which is caused by dehydration, water moves out of the cells into the ECF. This causes the cells to crenate (shrink) as they lose water to the more concentrated extracellular environment.
Card 40
What is the most abundant intracellular cation?
Potassium ions are the most abundant intracellular cations. Their high concentration within the cytosol, primarily maintained by the Na+/K+ pump, is crucial for the function of neurons and muscle cells.
Card 41
How do hormones like insulin, aldosterone, and epinephrine affect potassium ion concentration?
These hormones stimulate the uptake of potassium ions by cells, effectively shifting these ions to the intracellular compartment. This helps to keep extracellular potassium levels stable.
Card 42
What can cause hypokalemia and what are its symptoms?
Hypokalemia, often caused by the use of diuretics, makes the resting membrane more negative (hyperpolarized). This makes cells difficult to stimulate, leading to symptoms like muscle weakness, slow heart rate, and mental status changes.
Card 43
Why is the repolarization phase critical for excitable cells?
The repolarization phase is critical for excitable cells because it returns them to their resting membrane potential. This restoration is essential for the cells to be able to generate subsequent action potentials.
Card 44
Describe the main effect of Atrial Natriuretic Peptide (ANP) on sodium ion reabsorption.
Atrial Natriuretic Peptide (ANP) decreases sodium ion reabsorption. This action helps to lower blood volume and pressure by promoting sodium and water excretion.
Card 45
What is edema, and what are some potential causes?
Edema is a condition of hypervolemia where fluid accumulates in the interstitial fluid, causing swelling. It can be caused by factors such as hypertension, decreased venous return of blood to the heart, and excess Na+ ion retention.
Card 46
How does a low sodium concentration stimulate the reabsorption of sodium ions from the proximal tubules?
A low sodium concentration acts as a stimulus, leading to increased reabsorption of sodium ions from the proximal tubules. This is part of the body's mechanism to restore sodium balance.
Card 47
What is the typical daily water intake required to balance water loss from metabolism and oxidative catabolism?
The body typically needs to drink 1.5 liters of water daily to balance the water lost from metabolism and oxidative catabolism. This amount can vary with physical activity.
Card 48
What are the three main sites where calcium levels are maintained in the body?
Calcium levels are maintained at three main sites: bone tissue, the distal tubules and collecting system in the kidney, and the small intestine. These sites work together to regulate calcium homeostasis.
Card 49
Which hormone is released in response to decreased calcium levels and what does it assist?
Parathyroid hormone (PTH) is released in response to decreased calcium levels. It assists vitamin D3 in increasing osteoclast activity and calcium reabsorption, thereby raising blood calcium levels.
Card 50
Which hormone stimulates the uptake of potassium ions by cells, shifting them to the intracellular compartment?
Hormones such as insulin, aldosterone, and epinephrine stimulate the uptake of potassium ions by cells, moving them into the intracellular compartment.
Card 51
Define hyperkalemia.
Hyperkalemia is a condition characterized by abnormally high levels of potassium ions in the blood. It can alter the resting membrane potential of cells, making them more excitable, and in severe cases, non-excitable.
Card 52
What is a common cause of hypokalemia?
A common cause of hypokalemia, which makes the resting membrane more negative (hyperpolarized), is the use of diuretics. This makes cells difficult to stimulate, leading to symptoms like muscle weakness.
Card 53
How does digoxin toxicity lead to hyperkalemia?
Digoxin blocks the functioning of the Na+/K+ pump in cardiac muscle cells. This blocking leads to ions being concentrated in the wrong compartment, specifically shifting potassium ions from the interstitial fluid to the cytosol, resulting in hyperkalemia.
Card 54
Besides osseous tissue, what are two critical functions of calcium ions in the body?
Calcium ions are required for muscle contraction, the plateau phase of the cardiac cycle, intracellular signaling, blood clotting, and neuron signal transmission.
Card 55
Which two hormones are primarily involved in the regulation of calcium and phosphate ion homeostasis?
The two primary hormones involved in the regulation of calcium and phosphate ion homeostasis are parathyroid hormone (PTH) and vitamin D3.
Card 56
What is a major cause of hypercalcemia?
The usual cause of hypercalcemia is hyperparathyroidism, though it can also result from certain cancers, bone disorders, excess vitamin D, and renal failure.
Card 57
What effect does hypercalcemia have on the nervous system?
Hypercalcemia makes neurons less permeable to sodium ions, which affects depolarization. This reduces neuronal excitability.
Card 58
What is a common cause of hypocalcemia?
Hypocalcemia is usually due to decreased parathyroid hormone (PTH) and vitamin D deficiency. This leads to neurons becoming hyperexcitable.
Card 59
How does hypocalcemia affect the cardiac muscle action potential?
Hypocalcemia lengthens the plateau phase of the cardiac muscle action potential, leading to a stronger contraction. This can be lethal due to cardiac effects and tetanic spasm of respiratory muscles.
Card 60
What is the primary role of chloride ions in the stomach?
Chloride ions are critical for the production of hydrochloric acid (HCl) in the stomach, which is essential for digestion.
Card 61
What is the normal pH range of body fluids?
The normal hydrogen ion concentration of body fluids corresponds to a pH range of 7.35-7.45.
Card 62
Which two organ systems are key to maintaining pH balance in the body?
The Respiratory and Urinary systems are key to maintaining pH balance in the body, working alongside buffer systems.
Card 63
What is the largest source of acids formed as a normal part of metabolic processes?
The largest source of acids formed as a normal part of metabolic processes is carbon dioxide, which is considered a volatile acid as it can change state from carbonic acid back to carbon dioxide gas.
Card 64
What is the primary function of a chemical buffer system?
A chemical buffer system consists of a weak acid and a weak base that work to minimize pH changes. When a strong acid is added, the weak base binds H+ ions; when a strong base is added, the weak acid releases H+ ions.
Card 65
Which chemical buffering system is most important in the blood?
The carbonic-acid-bicarbonate buffer system is the most important chemical buffering system in the blood.
Card 66
What is an 'acid' in the context of acid-base balance?
An acid is a chemical that dissociates in water to release hydrogen ions (H+). Common examples in the body include hydrochloric acid and carbonic acid.
Card 67
What is a 'base' in the context of acid-base balance?
A base is a chemical that accepts hydrogen ions (H+) in a solution. A common base in the body is the bicarbonate ion (HCO3-).
Card 68
How does the respiratory system directly control the amount of carbon dioxide in the blood?
The respiratory system directly controls the amount of carbon dioxide in the blood by regulating the amount expired, matching it to the amount produced by metabolic reactions.
Card 69
What happens to the pH of water when a strong acid is added?
When a strong acid is added to water, the acid immediately donates its H+ ions, which increases the H+ concentration and significantly decreases the pH.
Card 70
What happens when a strong base like sodium hydroxide (NaOH) is added to water?
When a strong base like sodium hydroxide (NaOH) is added to water, the released hydroxide ions remove many of the H+ ions from the solution, significantly raising the pH and making it very basic.
Card 71
Which of the following describes the effect of hypokalemia on the resting membrane potential? A) Cells become more excitable B) Resting membrane becomes more negative (hyperpolarized) C) Resting membrane becomes depolarized D) No significant change in membrane potential
B) Resting membrane becomes more negative (hyperpolarized). Hypokalemia makes the resting membrane more negative, making cells difficult to stimulate.
Card 72
Which ion is an integral part of the structure of ATP? A) Calcium B) Potassium C) Phosphate D) Chloride
C) Phosphate. Phosphate is an integral part of the structure of ATP, which is crucial for energy transfer in cells.
Card 73
What is the term for the buffering capacity of chemical buffer systems, referring to the ability to bind H+ ions? A) Acid reserve B) Alkaline reserve C) pH balance D) Ionic equilibrium
B) Alkaline reserve. The buffering capacity of chemical systems, where a weak base binds H+ ions or a weak acid releases H+ ions, is known as the alkaline reserve.
Card 74
What is the main symptom of severe hypocalcemia related to muscle activity? A) Muscle weakness B) Slow heart rate C) Tetanic spasm of respiratory muscle D) Decreased appetite
C) Tetanic spasm of respiratory muscle. Severe hypocalcemia makes neurons hyperexcitable, leading to repetitive stimulation and potentially lethal tetanic spasms, especially of respiratory muscles.
Card 75
Define an acid in the context of acid-base balance.
An acid is a chemical that dissociates in water to release hydrogen ions (H+). Common examples in the body include hydrochloric acid in the stomach and carbonic acid in the blood.
Card 76
What is the primary role of a base in a solution?
A base is a chemical that accepts hydrogen ions (H+) in a solution. The bicarbonate ion (HCO3-) is a common base in the body that helps buffer pH changes.
Card 77
Which of the following is the most important chemical buffering system in the blood? A) Phosphate buffer system B) Protein buffer system C) Carbonic-acid-bicarbonate buffer system D) Amino acid buffer system
C) Carbonic-acid-bicarbonate buffer system. This system is crucial for maintaining pH stability in the blood due to its abundance and the ability of its components to be regulated by the respiratory and renal systems.
Card 78
How does the carbonic-acid-bicarbonate buffer system minimize pH changes when a strong acid is added to the blood?
When a strong acid is added, the bicarbonate ion (HCO3-) accepts the H+ ions, forming carbonic acid (H2CO3). Carbonic acid is a weak acid and does not readily release its H+ ions, thereby minimizing the decrease in pH.
Card 79
What is acidosis?
Acidosis is a condition characterized by low blood pH, specifically below 7.35. It causes neurons to become less excitable, leading to nervous system depression and symptoms like slurred speech and drowsiness.
Card 80
What is the 'alkaline reserve' in the context of buffering capacity?
The alkaline reserve refers to the buffering capacity when a strong base is added. In this scenario, the weak acid in the buffer system releases its H+ ions to bind with the base ions, counteracting the pH increase.
Card 81
Which organ system controls the amount of volatile acids in the extracellular fluid (ECF)?
The respiratory system controls the amount of volatile acids in the ECF, primarily by regulating the amount of carbon dioxide (CO2) in the blood, which forms carbonic acid.
Card 82
How do the kidneys influence blood pH regarding bicarbonate ions?
The kidneys control the concentration of bicarbonate ions in the blood by reabsorbing them from the filtrate and manufacturing new bicarbonate ions when the blood pH falls, thus helping to raise pH.
Card 83
What is respiratory acidosis caused by?
Respiratory acidosis is caused by a decrease in the pH of body fluids due to excess carbon dioxide, which results from decreased ventilation (hypoventilation) and accumulation of CO2.
Card 84
Which of the following is a common cause of metabolic alkalosis? A) Hyperventilation B) Prolonged diarrhea C) Prolonged vomiting D) Kidney failure to reabsorb bicarbonate
C) Prolonged vomiting. This leads to a loss of stomach acid (H+ ions), which can result in an excess of bicarbonate ions and an increase in blood pH.
Card 85
What happens to H+ ions when carbonic acid is formed in erythrocytes?
When carbonic acid is formed in erythrocytes, it dissociates into bicarbonate (HCO3-) and H+. The H+ ions then bind to hemoglobin, which acts as a buffer for the cytosol within the erythrocytes.
Card 86
What is the immediate effect on H+ concentration and pH when a strong acid is added to unbuffered water?
When a strong acid is added to water, it immediately donates its H+ ions, which increases the H+ concentration and consequently decreases the pH of the solution.
Card 87
Describe the role of the urinary system in regulating fixed acids.
The urinary system, specifically the kidneys, can excrete fixed acids that the lungs cannot, such as lactic acid, ketones, phosphoric acid, uric acid, and ammonium, thereby helping to maintain acid-base balance.
Card 88
What is the primary compensatory response for metabolic acidosis?
The first compensatory response for metabolic acidosis is respiratory compensation, which involves hyperventilation to increase the excretion of carbon dioxide and reduce carbonic acid levels.
Card 89
What are the three general causes of respiratory acidosis?
The three general causes of respiratory acidosis are suppressed ventilation from brainstem dysfunction, blockage of air passages in the lungs, and decreased gas exchange in the alveoli.
Card 90
How does the body compensate for respiratory alkalosis if it is physiological?
If respiratory alkalosis is physiological, the compensatory response primarily involves the kidneys excreting bicarbonate ions and retaining H+ ions to lower the blood pH back towards normal.
Card 91
What are arterial blood gases (ABGs) used to measure for acid-base balance?
Arterial blood gases (ABGs) measure the pH, partial pressure of carbon dioxide (PCO2), and concentration of bicarbonate ions in the blood to provide an accurate picture of a patient's acid-base balance.
Card 92
What ABG results would indicate respiratory acidosis?
Respiratory acidosis is indicated by elevated arterial PCO2 and a lower than normal pH in arterial blood gas measurements.
Card 93
Which of the following describes metabolic alkalosis in terms of ABG results? A) Elevated pH and low PCO2 B) Decreased pH and lower bicarbonate ion C) Elevated pH and high bicarbonate ion D) Elevated PCO2 and lower pH
C) Elevated pH and high bicarbonate ion. Metabolic alkalosis is characterized by an increase in blood pH and an elevated concentration of bicarbonate ions.
Card 94
What are the three main physiological buffer systems mentioned?
The three main physiological buffer systems are the chemical buffers, the respiratory system (controlling volatile acids), and the urinary system (controlling fixed acids and bicarbonate ions).
Card 95
How does the protein buffer system contribute to acid-base balance?
The protein buffer system is most important intracellularly. Proteins can act as both weak acids and weak bases due to their amino acid components, allowing them to bind or release H+ ions to buffer pH changes within cells.
Card 96
What is the effect of acidosis on neuronal excitability?
Acidosis causes neurons to become less excitable. This reduced excitability leads to nervous system depression, which can manifest as slurred speech, drowsiness, and unresponsiveness.
Card 97
When a strong base is added to a solution buffered by carbonic acid, what is the reaction that minimizes pH changes?
When a strong base is added, the carbonic acid releases H+ ions into the solution. These H+ ions bind to the hydroxide ions (OH-) from the strong base, forming water and a molecule of sodium bicarbonate, thereby minimizing the rise in pH.
Card 98
What is the compensatory response for metabolic alkalosis involving the respiratory system?
The respiratory compensatory response for metabolic alkalosis is hypoventilation. This decreases the exhalation of carbon dioxide, leading to an increase in carbonic acid and a decrease in pH.
Card 99
What happens if a disturbance in acid-base balance is due to a problem with one of the organ systems that normally compensates?
If a disturbance is due to a problem with a compensating organ system (e.g., respiratory acidosis from pulmonary disease), the response is limited to the remaining compensatory mechanisms. The affected system cannot participate in its usual compensatory role.
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