Biological psychology flashcards

All 50 cards

1. Card 1

   Why is the study of biological psychology considered important for understanding human health and behavior?

   Biological psychology is crucial for understanding human health and behavior because it provides insights into the biological underpinnings of thoughts, emotions, and actions. This understanding is vital for developing effective treatments and interventions for psychological disorders, improving brain health and overall well-being, and optimizing occupational health and performance by comprehending the neural basis of behavior.

2. Card 2

   Distinguish between the Central Nervous System (CNS) and the Peripheral Nervous System (PNS), outlining their primary components.

   The Central Nervous System (CNS) consists of the brain and the spinal cord, serving as the main control center for the body. In contrast, the Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) encompasses all nerve cells in the body that are not part of the CNS. The PNS further subdivides into the somatic and autonomic nervous systems, responsible for transmitting information between the CNS and the rest of the body.

3. Card 3

   How do neurons, as specialized cells, facilitate communication within the nervous system?

   Neurons are specialized for communication by transmitting and processing information through both electrical and chemical signals. They conduct signals via electrical impulses along their axons and communicate with other neurons through chemical signals at synapses, forming complex neural networks. This intricate process allows them to receive, integrate, and transmit information throughout the nervous system.

4. Card 4

   Define the concept of 'behaviour' within the context of biological psychology and provide examples of what it encompasses.

   In biological psychology, 'behaviour' is defined as anything an organism does that involves action and a response to stimulation. This broad definition includes both overt actions, such as walking or speaking, and internal responses, such as changes in heart rate or pupil dilation, all of which are ultimately controlled by the nervous system and have a physical or neural basis in the brain.

5. Card 5

   Explain the relationship between the brain and the mind according to the principles of biological psychology.

   Biological psychology posits that every thought, feeling, and behavior has a physical or neural basis in the brain. The mind is considered to be the product of the brain's activity, meaning that mental processes like consciousness, memory, and emotion emerge directly from the complex operations and interactions of neural structures and processes within the brain.

6. Card 6

   Describe the functional differences between sensory neurons, motor neurons, and interneurons.

   Sensory (afferent) neurons carry sensory messages from the body to the CNS, communicating all sensory experiences. Motor (efferent) neurons carry messages away from the CNS to muscles, organs, and glands, controlling their functioning and resulting in voluntary or involuntary movements. Interneurons, which make up the bulk of neurons in the brain, relay messages between sensory neurons and other complex pathways within local or short-distance circuits.

7. Card 7

   What is the primary function of dendrites in a neuron, and how do they contribute to neural communication?

   Dendrites are tree-like growths attached to the neuron's soma that serve as the primary recipients of information from other neurons. They form the 'input zone' of the neuron, collecting messages and transmitting them towards the cell body. This function is crucial for integrating signals from multiple sources, which is essential for the neuron to process information effectively.

8. Card 8

   Explain the role of the axon in a neuron and the type of message it typically carries.

   The axon is a long, slender tube that carries information away from the soma towards other cells with which the neuron is communicating. The basic message carried by the axon is called an action potential, often referred to as a nerve impulse or the 'firing' of a neuron. This electrical signal is the primary means by which neurons transmit information over long distances.

9. Card 9

   What are terminal buttons, and what crucial chemical process do they initiate upon receiving a nerve impulse?

   Terminal buttons are knob-like structures located at the ends of the axon's branches. When a nerve impulse (action potential) reaches these terminal buttons, they secrete a chemical substance known as a neurotransmitter. These neurotransmitters are essential for transmitting the signal across the synapse to another neuron, muscle, or gland cell.

10. Card 10

    How does myelination affect the speed and efficiency of communication within a neuron?

    Myelination is the process where some axons are covered with a fatty material called myelin. Myelin acts as both an insulator and a conductor of nerve impulses, significantly speeding up the process of communication within a neuron. This insulation prevents the dissipation of the electrical signal, allowing the action potential to jump between gaps in the myelin sheath, thereby increasing transmission efficiency.

11. Card 11

    What are glial cells, and what are their diverse roles in supporting the nervous system?

    Glial cells, also known as neuroglia or 'nerve glue,' are non-neuronal cells that support and assist neurons. Their roles are diverse, including playing a central role in brain development, aiding the migration of newly created neurons, supplying nutrients and oxygen to neurons, providing structural support, removing cellular debris, and forming the myelin sheath around axons to insulate them.

12. Card 12

    Distinguish between oligodendrocytes and Schwann cells based on their location and function.

    Oligodendrocytes and Schwann cells are types of neuroglial cells responsible for forming the myelin sheath around neurons. Oligodendrocytes perform this function within the Central Nervous System (CNS), meaning the brain and spinal cord. In contrast, Schwann cells provide the insulating myelin sheath within the Peripheral Nervous System (PNS), which lies outside the brain and spinal cord.

13. Card 13

    Describe the phenomenon of 'resting membrane potential' and explain how it is established.

    Resting membrane potential (RMP) is the steady difference in electrical charge across the nerve cell membrane when a neuron is at rest and not active, typically around -70mV. It is established by the differential distribution of ions, such as high concentrations of Na+ outside the cell and K+ inside the cell, creating a polarized state where the inside of the neuron is more negative than the outside. This polarization provides the electrical energy necessary for a nerve impulse.

14. Card 14

    Why is the resting membrane potential crucial for the generation of an action potential?

    The resting membrane potential (RMP) is crucial because an action potential, or nerve impulse, can only occur when there is a steady difference in electrical charge across the nerve cell membrane. The polarized state of the neuron at RMP creates the necessary electrical energy and electrochemical gradient. This potential energy allows for the rapid influx and efflux of ions that characterize the rapid reversal of electrical charge during an action potential.

15. Card 15

    Explain what an 'action potential' is and where it typically originates in a neuron.

    An action potential is a brief electrical event that involves a rapid, temporary reversal in the electrical charge of an axon. It is often referred to as a 'nerve impulse' or the 'firing' of a neuron. This electrical signal typically originates at the end of the axon nearest the soma, known as the 'axon hillock,' and is then transmitted down the axon to the terminal buttons.

16. Card 16

    How do physical and chemical inputs differ in their activation of sensory neurons?

    Sensory neurons can be activated by both physical and chemical inputs, corresponding to our five senses and internal body states. Physical inputs include stimuli like sound, touch, heat, or light, which directly affect the neuron's membrane. Chemical inputs, such as those from taste or smell, involve specific molecules binding to receptors on the sensory neurons, triggering a signal that is then sent to the brain.

17. Card 17

    What role do sensory neurons play in maintaining homeostasis within the body?

    Sensory neurons play a vital role in maintaining homeostasis by responding to stimuli that originate within the body, such as pain, blood pressure changes, hunger, or inflammation. By communicating this internal information to the brain, they enable the body to initiate appropriate self-regulatory responses to physical systems, ensuring conditions necessary for survival are kept within optimal ranges.

18. Card 18

    Distinguish between upper and lower motor neurons based on their origin and function.

    Motor neurons (efferent neurons) carry messages away from the CNS to control muscles, organs, and glands. Upper motor neurons originate from the cerebral cortex and transmit signals down to the lower motor neurons. Lower motor neurons are located in the brain stem and spinal cord, directly innervating muscles and glands to execute movements and other functions. Their coordinated action allows for both voluntary and involuntary movements.

19. Card 19

    Why are the brain and spinal cord referred to as 'integrators' in the nervous system?

    The brain and spinal cord, which constitute the Central Nervous System (CNS), are referred to as 'integrators' because they are responsible for receiving, processing, and interpreting the vast amount of sensory information flowing into the body. They then integrate this information to formulate appropriate responses, which are subsequently sent out to effectors like muscles and glands. This central role in information processing and decision-making makes them the primary integrators.

20. Card 20

    What are 'effectors' in the context of the nervous system, and what is their role?

    Effectors are the cells or organs that carry out the commands transmitted from the central nervous system via motor neurons. In the nervous system, muscle cells and gland cells are known as effectors. Their role is to produce a response, such as muscle contraction (movement) or the secretion of hormones (glandular activity), in reaction to neural signals, thereby enabling the body to act upon its environment or maintain internal states.

21. Card 21

    How does the 'mind is the product of the brain's activity' concept influence the approach of biological psychology?

    This concept fundamentally shapes biological psychology by asserting that all mental processes, from thoughts and emotions to consciousness, are directly caused by the physical activity of the brain. This leads biological psychologists to investigate the neural mechanisms, structures, and chemical processes within the brain to understand and explain psychological phenomena, rather than viewing the mind as a separate, non-physical entity.

22. Card 22

    Describe the main components of the soma (cell body) of a neuron and its functions.

    The soma, or cell body, is the largest part of a neuron and contains the nucleus. It houses the machinery that controls the metabolism and maintenance of the cell, essential for the neuron's survival and function. The soma also receives messages from other cells through its dendrites, integrating these signals before potentially generating an action potential.

23. Card 23

    In what ways do neurons demonstrate specialization for communication, beyond simply transmitting signals?

    Neurons demonstrate specialization for communication in several ways: they are structurally adapted with dendrites for receiving, axons for transmitting, and terminal buttons for releasing neurotransmitters. They utilize both electrical impulses (action potentials) for rapid internal signal conduction and chemical signals (neurotransmitters) for communication across synapses. Furthermore, their ability to form vast, complex neural networks allows for sophisticated information processing and integration, far beyond simple signal transmission.

24. Card 24

    Explain the concept of 'polarization' in a resting nerve cell membrane and its significance.

    Polarization in a resting nerve cell membrane refers to the state where there is a steady difference in electrical charge across the membrane, with the inside of the neuron being more negative than the outside. This is typically maintained at -70mV due to the differential distribution of ions. This polarization is significant because it creates the electrical potential energy necessary to power the rapid changes in charge that occur during the firing of a nerve impulse (action potential).

25. Card 25

    Why is 'behavioural neuroscience' considered synonymous with biological psychology, and what does this imply about their focus?

    'Behavioural neuroscience' is considered synonymous with biological psychology because both fields examine the biological basis of thoughts, emotions, and behaviors. This synonymity implies that both disciplines are primarily focused on understanding the intricate relationship between the nervous system (especially the brain) and observable actions, mental processes, and emotional states, using scientific methods to explore these connections.

26. Card 26

    Define the resting membrane potential (RMP) of a neuron and explain how it is maintained.

    The resting membrane potential (RMP) is the steady difference in electrical charge across the axon membrane of a neuron when it is at rest, typically around -70mV. It is maintained by the differential distribution of ions, primarily high Na+ concentration outside and high K+ concentration inside. The sodium-potassium pump actively pumps 3 Na+ ions out and 2 K+ ions into the cell, while partially closed potassium channels allow slow K+ leakage, contributing to the negative charge inside and maintaining this electrical gradient.

27. Card 27

    How do oligodendrocytes and Schwann cells differ in their function within the nervous system?

    Both oligodendrocytes and Schwann cells are types of neuroglial cells that provide an insulating myelin sheath around neurons. The key difference lies in their location: oligodendrocytes form the myelin sheath within the central nervous system (CNS), which includes the brain and spinal cord, while Schwann cells perform this function in the peripheral nervous system (PNS), which encompasses nerves outside the brain and spinal cord.

28. Card 28

    Explain the role of diffusion and electrostatic pressure in determining the movement of ions across a neuron's membrane at rest.

    Diffusion is the movement of molecules from a region of high concentration to a region of low concentration. Electrostatic pressure is the attractive force between oppositely charged particles and the repulsive force between similarly charged particles. At rest, these two forces act on ions like K+, Na+, and Cl- to establish and maintain the resting membrane potential, with their opposing actions balancing out to create the -70mV charge difference.

29. Card 29

    What is an action potential, and what is its relationship to the resting membrane potential?

    An action potential is a brief electrical event characterized by a rapid reversal in the electrical charge of an axon, often referred to as a nerve impulse. It originates at the axon hillock and propagates down the axon. An action potential can only occur when the neuron is in a state of resting membrane potential (RMP), meaning there is a steady difference in electrical charge across the axon membrane, providing the necessary electrical energy for the impulse to fire.

30. Card 30

    Describe the composition of ions inside and outside a neuron during its resting membrane potential.

    During the resting membrane potential, there is a differential distribution of ions across the nerve cell membrane. Specifically, sodium ions (Na+) are in high concentration outside the cell, while potassium ions (K+) are in high concentration inside the cell. Additionally, chloride ions (Cl-) are in higher concentration outside, and large organic anions (A-) are concentrated inside, contributing to the overall negative charge inside the neuron relative to the outside.

31. Card 31

    What are voltage-dependent ion channels, and what is their significance in neuronal communication?

    Voltage-dependent ion channels are specialized ion channels that possess 'voltage-sensitive' gates, meaning their opening or closing is directly regulated by the value of the cell's membrane potential. Their significance lies in their crucial role in initiating and propagating action potentials; if the resting membrane potential changes by a certain minimum amount (threshold), these gates open, allowing ion flow that drives the nerve impulse.

32. Card 32

    How do neuroglial cells contribute to the structural support and growth of neurons?

    Neuroglial cells provide essential structural support to neurons, acting as a scaffold that helps maintain the neuron's shape and organization within the nervous system. Furthermore, they play a direct role in guiding the growth of neurons, particularly during brain development, by directing the movement and migration of newly formed neurons to their correct positions.

33. Card 33

    Explain how the forces of diffusion and electrostatic pressure influence the movement of potassium ions (K+) when a neuron is at rest.

    When a neuron is at rest, potassium ions (K+) are in high concentration inside the cell and lower concentration outside. Diffusion tends to force K+ ions out of the cell, moving them down their concentration gradient. However, the inside of the axon is negatively charged relative to the outside, creating an electrostatic pressure that tends to pull the positively charged K+ ions back into the cell. These opposing forces balance each other, contributing to the maintenance of the resting membrane potential.

34. Card 34

    What would be the immediate consequence if an axon membrane suddenly became highly permeable to sodium ions (Na+) while at rest?

    If an axon membrane at rest suddenly became highly permeable to sodium ions (Na+), both the force of diffusion and the force of electrostatic pressure would cause Na+ to rush into the nerve cell. Diffusion would drive Na+ inward due to its higher concentration outside, and electrostatic pressure would pull Na+ inward because the outside is positively charged relative to the negatively charged inside. This influx of positive ions is precisely what initiates the depolarization phase of an action potential.

35. Card 35

    Beyond myelin formation, what other vital functions do neuroglial cells perform to support the mature nervous system?

    Beyond forming the myelin sheath, neuroglial cells perform several other vital functions to support the mature nervous system. They supply essential nutrients and oxygen to neurons and play a key role in controlling the delivery of these resources. Additionally, neuroglia are crucial for removing cellular debris that remains after cell death, ensuring a clean and functional environment for neuronal activity.

36. Card 36

    Define 'polarization' in the context of a resting nerve cell membrane.

    In the context of a resting nerve cell membrane, 'polarization' refers to the state where the neuron has a greater concentration of negative ions inside its membrane compared to the outside, which has a greater concentration of positive ions. This difference in electrical charge across the membrane, typically -70mV, is known as the resting membrane potential and creates the electrical energy required for nerve impulses.

37. Card 37

    How does the sodium-potassium pump contribute to maintaining the -70mV resting membrane potential?

    The sodium-potassium pump is an ion transporter that actively works to maintain the -70mV resting membrane potential. It continually pumps three sodium ions (Na+) out of the cell for every two potassium ions (K+) it draws into the cell. This action contributes to the net negative charge inside the cell and helps to maintain the electrical gradient across the axon membrane, counteracting the passive leakage of ions.

38. Card 38

    Explain the role of neuroglia in brain development during the prenatal period and immediately after birth.

    During brain development, both prenatally and in the months following birth, neuroglia play a central role by aiding the movement and migration of newly created neurons. They act as guiding pathways, helping these nascent neurons travel from their initial positions to their final, appropriate locations within the developing brain, which is crucial for forming functional neural circuits.

39. Card 39

    Distinguish between an 'ion' and a 'voltage-dependent ion channel'.

    An ion is an atom or group of atoms that carries an electrical charge, either positive (like Na+, K+) or negative (like Cl-, A-). A voltage-dependent ion channel, on the other hand, is a protein embedded in the cell membrane that forms a pore, allowing specific ions to pass through. Crucially, these channels have 'voltage-sensitive' gates that open or close in response to changes in the cell's membrane potential, regulating ion flow.

40. Card 40

    Why is the resting membrane potential described as a 'steady difference in electrical charge'?

    The resting membrane potential is described as a 'steady difference in electrical charge' because, in a neuron that is not actively transmitting a signal, there is a consistent and stable voltage difference across its axon membrane, typically around -70mV. This steady state is actively maintained by ion pumps and selective permeability of ion channels, ensuring the neuron is always poised to fire an action potential when stimulated.

41. Card 41

    What are the two main types of positive ions and two main types of negative ions mentioned in the context of neuronal charge?

    The two main types of positive ions mentioned are potassium (K+) and sodium (Na+). The two main types of negative ions mentioned are chloride (Cl-) and organic anions (A+), although the source notes incorrectly list A+ as positive when it should be A- for organic anions.

42. Card 42

    How do ion channels and ion transporters collectively regulate the number of ions inside and outside the axon to maintain RMP?

    Ion channels and ion transporters work together to regulate ion distribution and maintain RMP. At rest, sodium ion channels are closed, while potassium ion channels are partially closed, allowing slow leakage of K+. Simultaneously, the sodium-potassium pump (an ion transporter) actively pumps 3 Na+ ions out and 2 K+ ions in, counteracting diffusion and electrostatic forces to sustain the -70mV electrical gradient.

43. Card 43

    Why is the initial part of an action potential often called a 'brief reversal in electrical charge'?

    The initial part of an action potential is called a 'brief reversal in electrical charge' because the influx of positive sodium ions (Na+) into the neuron causes the normally negative interior of the axon (at rest, ~-70mV) to rapidly become positive (depolarize and overshoot to around +30mV). This positive charge inside, relative to the outside, is a temporary but complete reversal of the resting polarized state.

44. Card 44

    Explain how the forces of diffusion and electrostatic pressure influence chloride ions (Cl-) at rest.

    At rest, chloride ions (Cl-) are in higher concentration outside the axon and lower inside. The force of diffusion tends to push Cl- ions into the cell. However, the inside of the axon is already negatively charged relative to the outside, creating an electrostatic pressure that repels the negatively charged Cl- ions, pushing them out of the cell. These opposing forces typically balance, contributing to the overall resting potential.

45. Card 45

    What is the 'axon hillock' and what is its significance in the generation of an action potential?

    The axon hillock is the conical area of the neuron where the axon originates from the soma (cell body). Its significance in the generation of an action potential is that it is typically where the action potential starts. This region integrates excitatory and inhibitory signals, and if the sum of these signals reaches the threshold of excitation, voltage-dependent ion channels open, initiating the nerve impulse.

46. Card 46

    How does the 'all-or-none' event principle apply to action potentials?

    The 'all-or-none' event principle states that an action potential, once triggered, either fires at its full amplitude or does not fire at all. There is no such thing as a 'partial' or 'stronger' action potential. If the threshold of excitation is reached, the action potential will proceed with a consistent strength and duration, regardless of how much the membrane potential exceeded the threshold.

47. Card 47

    What is the purpose of the myelin sheath in the context of an action potential?

    The purpose of the myelin sheath in the context of an action potential is to insulate the axon, thereby increasing the speed at which the action potential propagates. Myelin prevents ion leakage and forces the electrical signal to 'jump' from one Node of Ranvier to the next, a process called saltatory conduction, which is much faster and more energy-efficient than conduction in unmyelinated axons.

48. Card 48

    Define 'ion transporter' and provide an example of its function in maintaining neuronal stability.

    An ion transporter is a protein embedded in the cell membrane that actively moves specific ions across the membrane, often against their concentration or electrical gradients, requiring energy. An example is the sodium-potassium pump, which continually pumps 3 Na+ ions out of the cell and 2 K+ ions into the cell, crucial for maintaining the resting membrane potential and neuronal stability.

49. Card 49

    What is meant by a 'nerve impulse' and how does it relate to an action potential?

    A 'nerve impulse' is another term commonly used to describe an action potential. It refers to the brief electrical event that brings a rapid reversal in the electrical charge of an axon, starting at the axon hillock and being transmitted down the axon to the terminal buttons. Essentially, a nerve impulse is the propagation of an action potential along the neuron's axon.

50. Card 50

    How does the distribution of positive and negative ions contribute to the 'polarised' state of a resting neuron?

    The 'polarised' state of a resting neuron results from the uneven distribution of positive and negative ions across its membrane. There is a higher concentration of positively charged sodium ions outside the cell and a higher concentration of negatively charged organic anions and potassium ions inside. This creates an electrical gradient, with the inside of the neuron being more negative (typically -70mV) than the outside, establishing the resting membrane potential.

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