Personality psychology flashcards

All 49 cards

1. Card 1

   Define personality according to Gordon Allport's comprehensive definition, and explain the key implications of its various components.

   Gordon Allport defined personality as a dynamic organization inside the person of psychophysical systems that create characteristic patterns of behaviour, thoughts, and feelings. This definition implies that personality is organized, involves ongoing processes, has both psychological and biological foundations, is causal in influencing actions, exhibits consistent patterns, and manifests in diverse ways. It highlights the structured yet evolving nature of an individual's unique expression.

2. Card 2

   Explain the historical significance of Galen's theory of personality, detailing the four bodily humours and their associated personality types.

   Galen's theory, dating back to 131–201 AD, is significant as one of the earliest systematic attempts to explain personality. He proposed that personality was determined by the balance of four bodily humours. An excess of sanguine (blood) led to a cheerful, optimistic type; choleric (yellow bile) to an aggressive, hot-tempered type; phlegmatic (phlegm) to a calm, slow type; and melancholic (black bile) to a sad, pessimistic type. This model provided a foundational, albeit biologically simplistic, framework for understanding individual differences.

3. Card 3

   How does Hans Eysenck's two-dimensional model of Extraversion and Neuroticism relate to and refine Galen's ancient theory of bodily humours?

   Eysenck's model connects to Galen's theory by mapping the four ancient personality types onto combinations of his two primary dimensions. Specifically, a 'Stable + Extraverted' individual corresponds to Galen's Sanguine type; 'Stable + Introverted' to Phlegmatic; 'Unstable + Extraverted' to Choleric; and 'Unstable + Introverted' to Melancholic. Eysenck thus provided a more empirically grounded, dimensional framework that conceptually aligned with the earlier humoral classifications.

4. Card 4

   Distinguish between the Behavioural Approach System (BAS) and the Behavioural Inhibition System (BIS) as proposed by Jeffrey Gray, and explain how they relate to Eysenck's personality dimensions.

   Jeffrey Gray's BAS/BIS theory refines Eysenck's model. The Behavioural Approach System (BAS) is associated with sensitivity to reward and is linked to Extraversion, driving individuals to seek out pleasurable stimuli. The Behavioural Inhibition System (BIS) is associated with sensitivity to punishment and is linked to Neuroticism, causing individuals to avoid potential threats or negative outcomes. These systems provide a neurological basis for the reward-seeking and anxiety-avoidance tendencies reflected in Eysenck's dimensions.

5. Card 5

   Explain the core concept of the Psychodynamic Perspective on personality, identifying its key theorist and main ideas regarding the drivers of behaviour.

   The Psychodynamic Perspective, primarily associated with Sigmund Freud, posits that behaviour is largely driven by unconscious conflicts. It suggests that personality arises from the dynamic interplay between pleasure-seeking impulses (like the id) and societal rules and restraints (like the superego). This perspective emphasizes the profound influence of early experiences and hidden motivations on an individual's thoughts, feelings, and actions.

6. Card 6

   How does the Social Cognitive Perspective on personality differ from the Behavioural Perspective, particularly concerning the role of internal mental processes?

   The Social Cognitive Perspective, championed by theorists like Albert Bandura and Walter Mischel, differs from the Behavioural Perspective by emphasizing the interaction between a thinking individual and their social environment. While the Behavioural Perspective (Skinner) focuses primarily on external conditioning, rewards, and punishments as shapers of personality, the Social Cognitive Perspective explicitly incorporates internal cognitive processes such as learning, observation, and self-efficacy. It views personality as a product of reciprocal determinism, where thoughts, environment, and behaviour all influence each other.

7. Card 7

   Define 'factor analysis' in the context of trait theories and explain its purpose with an example.

   Factor analysis is a statistical method used by trait theorists to identify clusters of related behaviours and reduce a large number of observed behaviours into a smaller set of core personality traits. Its purpose is to uncover underlying dimensions that explain the correlations among many variables. For example, if 'mood swings' and 'worrying' consistently co-occur, factor analysis might group them together under the trait of 'Neuroticism'.

8. Card 8

   Explain Eysenck's hierarchical structure of personality, from acts to factors, and discuss the implications of this hierarchy regarding genetic determination.

   Eysenck proposed a hierarchical structure of personality: specific acts organize into habitual responses, which in turn form traits, and these traits then cluster into broad super-factors (like Extraversion, Neuroticism, Psychoticism). The implication is that as one moves from specific acts to higher-level factors, the aspects of personality become more general and, critically, more genetically determined. This suggests a biological basis for the broad dimensions of personality.

9. Card 9

   Describe the biological basis Eysenck proposed for Extraversion, specifically referencing the Reticular Activating System (RAS) and its activity levels for introverts versus extraverts.

   Eysenck linked Extraversion to the activity level of the Reticular Activating System (RAS) in the brain. He argued that extraverts have a naturally low baseline level of cortical arousal, leading them to seek out external stimulation (like social interaction or exciting activities) to raise their arousal to an optimal level. Conversely, introverts have a naturally high baseline cortical arousal, causing them to avoid excessive stimulation to prevent over-arousal.

10. Card 10

    Discuss the biological basis Eysenck attributed to Neuroticism, explaining the role of the Autonomic Nervous System (ANS) and the concept of arousal threshold.

    Eysenck attributed Neuroticism to differences in the threshold of arousal of the Autonomic Nervous System (ANS). Individuals high in Neuroticism are theorized to have an ANS with a low arousal threshold, meaning it is easily activated by external events. This leads them to experience emotions more intensely and frequently. In contrast, stable individuals have an ANS with a high threshold, requiring a more intense experience to elicit a significant emotional or physiological response.

11. Card 11

    Explain the evidence from twin studies that supports Eysenck's theory regarding the genetic basis of Extraversion and Neuroticism.

    Twin studies provide strong evidence for the genetic basis of Eysenck's traits. Research consistently shows that identical (monozygotic) twins are significantly more similar in their levels of Extraversion and Neuroticism than fraternal (dizygotic) twins. This greater concordance in identical twins, who share nearly 100% of their genes, suggests that approximately 30-40% of the variance in these traits can be attributed to genetic factors, supporting Eysenck's proposition of a biological foundation for personality.

12. Card 12

    What are the five major perspectives on personality, and what is the central focus of each?

    The five major perspectives on personality are: 1) Trait/Biological, focusing on stable, measurable traits with biological bases; 2) Psychodynamic, emphasizing unconscious conflicts and early experiences; 3) Behavioural, centered on learning through conditioning, rewards, and punishments; 4) Social Cognitive, highlighting the interaction between thinking individuals and their social environment; and 5) Humanistic, focusing on free will, personal growth, and self-concept.

13. Card 13

    Explain the concept of 'personality' as a psychological construct, highlighting the common ideas associated with it.

    Personality refers to stable and consistent patterns in an individual's behaviour, thoughts, and feelings. Common ideas associated with this construct include the belief that each person possesses a unique personality, that personality remains relatively stable over time, and that it allows for meaningful comparisons between individuals, helping to understand and predict their responses to various situations.

14. Card 14

    What are the primary goals of trait theorists when studying personality?

    The primary goals of trait theorists are threefold: first, to describe the main traits that effectively define and differentiate personality among individuals; second, to devise reliable and valid methods for measuring these individual differences in personality traits; and third, to use these trait measures to understand, explain, and predict a person's behaviour across various contexts and over time.

15. Card 15

    Describe the Humanistic Perspective on personality, identifying its key theorist and its main ideas regarding human nature and development.

    The Humanistic Perspective, primarily associated with Carl Rogers, emphasizes free will and an inherent drive towards self-actualization. Its main ideas focus on personal growth, the development of a healthy self-concept, and the realization of human potential. This perspective views individuals as active agents in their own development, capable of making choices that lead to greater fulfillment and self-understanding.

16. Card 16

    How does the 'Lie Scale' on the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire (EPQ) contribute to the validity of the assessment?

    The 'Lie Scale' on the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire (EPQ) is designed to detect response biases, specifically when individuals attempt to present themselves in an overly positive or socially desirable light (faking good). By including items that most people would admit to, but which are socially undesirable, the Lie Scale helps to identify respondents who are not answering truthfully, thereby contributing to the overall validity and reliability of the personality assessment by flagging potentially inaccurate profiles.

17. Card 17

    What is the Five Factor Theory (FFT) proposed by Costa & McCrae, and what are its core tenets regarding the origin and expression of personality traits?

    The Five Factor Theory (FFT), developed by Costa & McCrae, posits that the Big Five personality traits (Neuroticism, Extraversion, Openness, Agreeableness, Conscientiousness) are basic biological tendencies that develop through intrinsic maturation. A core tenet is that these traits are largely endogenously determined, meaning they have a strong genetic and biological basis. While the environment can influence how these traits are expressed (e.g., through characteristic adaptations and self-concept), it does not fundamentally alter the basic trait structure itself.

18. Card 18

    Discuss the cross-cultural validity of the Big Five personality traits and what this suggests about their universality.

    The Big Five personality traits (Neuroticism, Extraversion, Openness, Agreeableness, Conscientiousness) have demonstrated significant cross-cultural validity, meaning they are consistently found across a wide range of cultures and languages worldwide. This widespread replication suggests that these traits are not merely cultural constructs but may represent universal, fundamental dimensions of human personality, potentially rooted in biology or shared human experiences.

19. Card 19

    Explain the concept of 'characteristic adaptations' within the Five Factor Theory (FFT) and how they relate to 'basic tendencies'.

    Within the Five Factor Theory (FFT), 'characteristic adaptations' refer to the specific habits, attitudes, goals, and values that individuals develop in response to their environment, influenced by their basic biological tendencies (the Big Five traits). While basic tendencies are the underlying, genetically influenced traits, characteristic adaptations are the concrete manifestations and expressions of these traits in real-world contexts, shaped by cultural and personal experiences. They represent how basic traits are expressed and modified over a lifetime.

20. Card 20

    What is the significance of the Greek word 'persona' in understanding the origin and early conceptualization of 'personality'?

    The word 'personality' originates from the Greek word 'persona,' which literally means 'mask.' This origin is significant because it suggests that the initial conceptualization of personality was closely tied to how individuals present themselves to others, much like an actor wears a mask to portray a character. It highlights the idea of an outward presentation or social role, hinting at the distinction between one's inner self and their public persona.

21. Card 21

    How do the stability patterns of the Big Five traits change across adulthood?

    The Big Five traits show relative stability in adulthood, but with some notable patterns of change. Specifically, Neuroticism, Extraversion, and Openness tend to decrease slightly with age, suggesting that individuals may become calmer, less outwardly focused, and less novelty-seeking over time. Conversely, Agreeableness and Conscientiousness tend to increase with age, indicating that people often become more cooperative, kind, organized, and self-disciplined as they mature.

22. Card 22

    What are the strengths of the Trait/Biological theories of personality?

    The Trait/Biological theories of personality possess several key strengths. They are supported by a strong body of research, particularly from twin studies, demonstrating genetic influences. They offer reliable and valid methods for measuring individual differences through standardized questionnaires like the EPQ and NEO-PI-R. Furthermore, these theories are highly effective at describing and categorizing personality differences among individuals, providing a consistent framework for understanding human variation.

23. Card 23

    What are the weaknesses identified in the Trait/Biological theories of personality?

    Despite their strengths, Trait/Biological theories have weaknesses. They are often criticized for providing limited explanation of the underlying psychological processes that give rise to traits, focusing more on description and measurement than on mechanistic 'hows' or 'whys.' Additionally, there are issues with interpreting heritability estimates, as these figures can be misunderstood and do not imply immutability or a simple one-to-one genetic causation for complex traits.

24. Card 24

    Distinguish between the concepts of 'traits' and 'factors' within Eysenck's hierarchical model of personality.

    In Eysenck's hierarchical model, 'traits' are broad, consistent patterns of behaviour that are more general than habits but less encompassing than 'factors.' For example, 'sociability' is a trait. 'Factors,' also known as superfactors or dimensions, are the most general and genetically determined aspects of personality, representing clusters of related traits. 'Extraversion' is a factor that encompasses traits like sociability, activity, and liveliness. So, factors are higher-order constructs that organize multiple correlated traits.

25. Card 25

    Define 'personality' from a general psychological perspective, encompassing its core characteristics.

    From a general psychological perspective, personality refers to the relatively stable and consistent patterns of behaviour, thoughts, and feelings that characterize an individual. It implies that these patterns are unique to each person, endure over time and across different situations, and allow for comparisons and predictions about how individuals might act or react. Essentially, it's the distinctive way a person typically perceives, interacts with, and responds to the world.

26. Card 26

    How does Eysenck's theory explain the difference between introversion and extraversion in terms of biological mechanisms?

    Eysenck proposed that the extraversion-introversion dimension is based on cortical arousal, specifically related to the activity level of the Reticular Activation System (RAS). Extroverts have an RAS that is not active enough, leading them to seek external stimulation to raise their cortical arousal to an optimal level. Conversely, introverts have an RAS that is overly active, resulting in higher-than-optimal cortical arousal, causing them to reduce external stimuli to lower their arousal.

27. Card 27

    Define the concept of 'factor analysis' as used by trait theorists in personality psychology.

    Factor analysis is a statistical method employed by trait theorists to identify clusters of behaviors that are highly correlated with one another. These clusters are then viewed as reflecting basic dimensions or 'traits' on which individuals vary, helping to reduce a large number of observed variables into a smaller number of underlying factors.

28. Card 28

    Explain how Eysenck's two original personality dimensions (Extraversion and Neuroticism) map onto Galen's four basic personality types.

    Eysenck's theory, considering the extremes of Extraversion-Introversion and Neuroticism-Stability, creates four combinations that align with Galen's model. High extraversion and high stability correspond to Sanguine; high introversion and high stability to Phlegmatic; high extraversion and high neuroticism to Choleric; and high introversion and high neuroticism to Melancholic.

29. Card 29

    What is the primary difference between Eysenck's PEN theory and the Five Factor Theory (Big Five) in terms of the number of core personality dimensions?

    Eysenck's PEN theory proposes three independent factors: Psychoticism, Extraversion, and Neuroticism. In contrast, the Five Factor Theory, also known as the Big Five, suggests a slightly expanded set of five core dimensions: Openness to Experience, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness, and Neuroticism (OCEAN).

30. Card 30

    How does Eysenck's theory account for the Neuroticism-Stability dimension from a biological perspective?

    Eysenck attributed the Neuroticism-Stability dimension to individual differences in the arousal threshold of the autonomic nervous system (ANS), possibly linked to structures in the hypothalamus. Individuals high in neuroticism have an ANS with a low threshold, meaning it is easily activated by external events, leading them to experience emotions more strongly and frequently. Stable individuals, conversely, have a high ANS threshold, requiring more intense experiences to elicit physiological emotional responses.

31. Card 31

    According to Freud, what is the 'unconscious' mind, and why is it significant in psychoanalytic theory?

    The unconscious mind, in Freudian theory, refers to the mental processes and contents that are entirely outside the range of potential awareness, containing material that is kept repressed. It is significant because Freud believed it houses thoughts, feelings, and motives that give rise to anxiety and influence behavior, often through dynamic conflicts with conscious and preconscious forces, necessitating indirect methods like dream analysis to access it.

32. Card 32

    Distinguish between the 'ID' and the 'EGO' in Freud's structural model of personality.

    The ID is the most primitive part of the personality, governed by the 'pleasure principle,' seeking immediate gratification of primal urges like sex and hunger without regard for logic or consequences. The EGO, in contrast, operates on the 'reality principle,' negotiating a balance between the ID's urges and the demands of the real world, aiming for safety and preservation of the organism by considering reason and consequences.

33. Card 33

    Why did B.F. Skinner consider 'personality' an unnecessary construct in explaining behavior?

    Skinner argued that looking inside the organism for explanations of behavior, such as personality traits, obscures the immediate environmental variables available for scientific analysis. He believed that personality terms offer circular and misleading explanations, and that behavior is best understood, predicted, and influenced by studying the relations between behavior and the environmental consequences (reinforcement and punishment) that shape it.

34. Card 34

    What is the core idea behind psychodynamic theories of personality, as exemplified by Freud's work?

    The core idea of psychodynamic theories is that unconscious motivations and needs profoundly influence behavior and personality. These theories view behavior and personality as stemming from dynamic conflicts between unconscious and conscious psychological forces, where repressed thoughts, feelings, and motives play a crucial role in shaping an individual's psychological makeup and actions.

35. Card 35

    How does Gray's BAS/BIS theory refine Eysenck's initial biological theory of personality?

    Gray's BAS/BIS theory refines Eysenck's model by linking specific brain systems to approach and avoidance learning. The Behavioral Approach System (BAS) is associated with sensitivity to rewards and is linked with extraversion, meaning extroverts are more influenced by rewards. The Behavioral Inhibition System (BIS) is linked with sensitivity to punishment and neuroticism, causing people high in neuroticism to become anxious in situations where they anticipate negative outcomes, providing a more specific neural basis for these traits.

36. Card 36

    Explain Freud's concept of 'repression' and its role in managing anxiety.

    Repression, in Freudian theory, is a defense mechanism where painful memories, thoughts, feelings, or unacceptable wishes that give rise to anxiety are unconsciously pushed out of consciousness and kept in the unconscious mind. It serves as an ego defense to hide these conflicts from the individual, thereby reducing conscious anxiety, though the repressed material may still influence behavior indirectly.

37. Card 37

    What is the significance of 'twin studies' in providing support for Eysenck's biological theory of personality?

    Twin studies, comparing identical (monozygotic) and fraternal (dizygotic) twins, are significant because they allow researchers to estimate the heritability of traits. Eysenck's theory is supported by findings that identical twins are much more alike on personality dimensions like Extraversion and Neuroticism than fraternal twins, suggesting a substantial genetic basis for these arousal patterns, with studies indicating 30-40% of variance attributed to genetic factors.

38. Card 38

    According to Freud, what is the function of the 'SUPEREGO' in the personality structure?

    The SUPEREGO is the personality agency that internalizes the influence of parents and society, acting as the moral compass. It is constrained by socially constructed morals and standards that become part of the individual's internal world during personality development, striving for perfection and imposing guilt or shame for transgressions.

39. Card 39

    Describe Freud's method of 'free association' and its purpose in psychoanalysis.

    Free association is a therapeutic method where the client is encouraged to verbalize anything and everything that comes to mind, no matter how irrational, irrelevant, or embarrassing it might seem, without censoring it. Its purpose is to bypass conscious resistance and allow unconscious thoughts, feelings, and conflicts to emerge, providing insights into the patient's repressed material and underlying psychological dynamics.

40. Card 40

    How does the Five Factor Theory (FFT) explain the nature of personality traits, particularly regarding environmental influence?

    The Five Factor Theory (FFT) posits that the Big Five personality traits are 'basic tendencies' with a strong biological basis. According to FFT, these personality traits are 'endogenous dispositions that follow intrinsic paths of development, essentially independent of environmental influences,' meaning they are largely determined by internal biological factors rather than external environmental shaping.

41. Card 41

    What are the three types of mental processes Freud divided the mind into, based on their availability to awareness?

    Freud divided mental processes into three types: Conscious, which is what we are currently aware of; Preconscious, which contains material that we can readily bring to our conscious mind; and Unconscious, which is outside the range of potential awareness and contains repressed material.

42. Card 42

    Why is the concept of 'dynamic conflict' central to Freud's understanding of anxiety and defense mechanisms?

    Dynamic conflict is central because Freud believed that the ID, EGO, and SUPEREGO are in continuous struggle, with ID impulses seeking release clashing against inhibitions or restraining forces. This ongoing conflict generates anxiety, which the EGO then attempts to manage through various defense mechanisms to hide unacceptable wishes and conflicts from conscious awareness.

43. Card 43

    According to Skinner, what are the 'variables that are immediately available for a scientific analysis' in psychology?

    According to Skinner, the 'variables that are immediately available for a scientific analysis' are environmental variables. He argued that by manipulating these variables in experiments and recording the results, psychologists can understand, predict, and influence behavior, rather than looking to internal, unobservable constructs like personality.

44. Card 44

    What is the hierarchical structure Eysenck used to describe personality constructs?

    Eysenck described personality in a hierarchy of constructs. At the lowest level are specific acts, which are organized into habits. Habits are then organized into traits, and finally, traits are organized into factors. As one moves from acts to factors, the constructs become more genetically determined and less experiential.

45. Card 45

    How did Freud view the role of dreams in accessing the unconscious mind?

    Freud considered dreams as a 'royal road to the unconscious.' He believed that a dream was the dreamer's unconscious effort to fulfill a wish that could not be expressed more directly. The analyst's task was to interpret the manifest content (surface story) of the dream to discover its latent content (hidden secrets and unconscious wishes), overcoming the dreamer's resistance to facing themselves.

46. Card 46

    Define 'trait' within the context of the trait approach to personality.

    Within the trait approach, a 'trait' is defined as a basic class of behavior that consistently describes an individual's personality. These traits are stable predispositions to behave in a certain way across different situations and over time, and they serve as fundamental dimensions along which people vary.

47. Card 47

    What is one criticism of trait/biological theories of personality regarding psychological processes?

    One criticism of trait/biological theories is that they tend not to say much about the underlying psychological processes. While they effectively describe important differences between people and identify consistent patterns of behavior, they often fall short in explaining the 'how' and 'why' of these behaviors at a deeper psychological level, focusing more on description and measurement.

48. Card 48

    What did Eysenck propose as the biological basis for the Extraversion-Introversion dimension?

    Eysenck proposed that the Extraversion-Introversion dimension is based on individual differences in cortical arousal, which is in turn related to the activity level of the Reticular Activation System (RAS). Extroverts have a less active RAS, leading to lower cortical arousal and a need for external stimulation, while introverts have a more active RAS, resulting in higher cortical arousal and a tendency to avoid excessive stimulation.

49. Card 49

    According to the Five Factor Theory, what are 'basic tendencies,' and what is their relationship to environmental influences?

    In the Five Factor Theory, 'basic tendencies' refer to the Big Five personality traits themselves, which are considered endogenous dispositions with a biological basis. The theory posits that these tendencies follow intrinsic paths of development and are essentially independent of environmental influences, meaning that while environmental factors might shape their expression, the core traits themselves are biologically determined and stable.

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