Social psychology L1-4 flashcards

All 50 cards

1. Card 1

   Define ostracism and explain its psychological impact.

   Ostracism refers to the act of excluding or ignoring an individual or group. Psychologically, it is a painful experience because it triggers the same brain areas associated with physical pain, leading to feelings of distress and rejection, and undermining an individual's sense of belonging and self-worth.

2. Card 2

   How does Dunbar's hypothesis relate to human group size, and what is its limitation concerning hunter-gatherer societies?

   Dunbar's hypothesis suggests that neocortex size predicts the typical group size for a species, implying a cognitive limit to the number of stable relationships an individual can maintain. However, despite this neurological capacity, hunter-gatherer groups rarely exceed 150 people, indicating that social and environmental factors also play a significant role in actual group formation.

3. Card 3

   Distinguish between the societal and individual levels of explanation in psychology, providing an example for each.

   The societal level (e.g., sociology) studies general patterns of social behavior and explains it through societal forces like poverty. In contrast, the individual level (e.g., personality psychology) studies individuals and their behavior, explaining it through a person's unique life history and psychological characteristics such as temperament.

4. Card 4

   Explain the interpersonal level of psychological study and how it differs from the individual level.

   The interpersonal level studies individuals and their behavior but explains it by a person's current social situation, such as exclusion or competition. This differs from the individual level, which focuses on internal characteristics like personality or life history to explain behavior, rather than immediate social interactions.

5. Card 5

   What are the key components of the scientific study in social psychology, specifically regarding systematic observation?

   Systematic observation in social psychology involves using appropriate sampling techniques to select participants and employing standardized observation and recording techniques to ensure data consistency. This approach aims to collect reliable and objective data about social behavior.

6. Card 6

   How does the 'description' component of social psychology's scientific study contribute to its rigor?

   The 'description' component contributes to rigor by making operational definitions of the variables being studied, which ensures clarity and replicability. It also emphasizes avoiding inferences or assumptions about why an event happened, focusing instead on objective reporting of observed phenomena.

7. Card 7

   What role does 'measurement' play in the scientific study of social psychology?

   Measurement in social psychology involves using standardized techniques to quantify both independent and dependent variables, ensuring that data is objective and comparable. Additionally, it requires the use of appropriate statistical techniques to analyze the collected data, allowing for valid conclusions to be drawn.

8. Card 8

   Define schemas in the context of social psychology and explain their primary function.

   Schemas are mental structures that people use to organize knowledge about their world, including information about themselves, other people, and social situations. Their primary function is to help individuals make sense of complex social information, guide their perceptions, and organize their memories.

9. Card 9

   Explain how introspection serves as a source of self-knowledge.

   Introspection is the process of looking inward to examine one's own thoughts, feelings, and motives. It serves as a source of self-knowledge by allowing individuals to directly access and reflect upon their internal states, although its accuracy can sometimes be influenced by causal theories about one's affect.

10. Card 10

    Distinguish between person schemas and role schemas, providing an example for each.

    Person schemas are mental structures suggesting that certain traits and behaviors go together, representing a specific type of individual (e.g., a 'nerd' is seen as intelligent but socially awkward). Role schemas, on the other hand, contain information about how people playing specific roles generally act (e.g., a 'doctor' is expected to be knowledgeable, empathetic, and professional).

11. Card 11

    What are situational schemas, also known as scripts, and how do they influence behavior?

    Situational schemas, or scripts, relate to events or sequences of events pertaining to specific situations, indicating what is expected to happen. They influence behavior by providing a mental blueprint for how to act in a given context, guiding individuals' expectations and actions to align with social norms for that situation.

12. Card 12

    Describe the Two-Factor Theory of Emotion and name its proponents.

    The Two-Factor Theory of Emotion, proposed by Schachter and Singer (1962), states that emotional experience is a result of two components: physical arousal and a cognitive label for that arousal based on situational information. This means that a similar physiological state can be interpreted as different emotions depending on the context.

13. Card 13

    How does the Schachter and Singer (1962) experiment on emotion support the Two-Factor Theory?

    The Schachter and Singer (1962) experiment supported the theory by showing that participants who were injected with epinephrine but were ignorant of its effects (physical arousal) interpreted their arousal differently based on the emotional state of a confederate (situational information). Those with an angry confederate felt angry, while those with a happy confederate felt happy, demonstrating the cognitive interpretation of arousal.

14. Card 14

    According to Festinger's Social Comparison Theory (1954), why do people compare themselves to others?

    According to Festinger's Social Comparison Theory (1954), people compare themselves to others for several reasons: for self-assessment (comparing to similar others), for self-enhancement (upward social comparison to feel inspired or motivated), and to evaluate their own opinions and abilities in the absence of objective standards.

15. Card 15

    Distinguish between the false consensus effect and the false uniqueness effect.

    The false consensus effect refers to our tendency to overestimate the commonality of our opinions and undesirable or unsuccessful behaviors, believing more people share them than actually do. In contrast, the false uniqueness effect is our tendency to underestimate the commonality of our abilities and desirable or successful behaviors, viewing them as more unique than they are.

16. Card 16

    What is self-handicapping and why do people engage in it?

    Self-handicapping is a strategy where individuals create a handy excuse for potential failure by engaging in behaviors that impede their own performance. People engage in it to protect their self-image, as it allows them to attribute failure to external factors rather than a lack of ability, thereby preserving their self-esteem.

17. Card 17

    How do schemas influence attention and the interpretation of ambiguous information?

    Schemas direct attention by highlighting schema-relevant information in the environment, making individuals more likely to notice certain cues. They also guide the interpretation of ambiguous information by providing a framework through which to understand it, leading to interpretations consistent with the existing schema.

18. Card 18

    Explain the concept of priming in social cognition and how it can influence judgments.

    Priming is a procedure based on the notion that recently encountered, frequently activated, or inter-related ideas are more likely to come to mind and thus influence judgments, decisions, attitudes, and actions. For example, hearing positive language before meeting someone can prime positive associations, leading to a more favorable initial impression of that person.

19. Card 19

    What are judgmental heuristics, and what is their general utility and potential drawback?

    Judgmental heuristics are mental shortcuts people use to make judgments quickly and efficiently. They are generally useful as they conserve cognitive energy and often lead to accurate conclusions. However, their potential drawback is that they can be misapplied, leading to systematic errors or faulty judgments in certain situations.

20. Card 20

    Define the availability heuristic and provide an example of its potential misapplication.

    The availability heuristic is a mental shortcut where people base a judgment on the ease with which they can bring something to mind. A potential misapplication is when people judge words with 'r' as the first letter to be more common than words with 'r' as the third letter, even though the latter is statistically more frequent, simply because words starting with 'r' are easier to recall.

21. Card 21

    Explain the representativeness heuristic and how it can lead to errors in judgment.

    The representativeness heuristic is a mental shortcut where people classify something according to how typical (representative) they think it is of a category or class. It can lead to errors when people ignore base-rate information or other relevant statistical data, relying too heavily on stereotypes or perceived typicality rather than actual probabilities.

22. Card 22

    Distinguish between personal attributions and situational attributions, as described by Heider.

    Heider distinguished between personal attributions, which are explanations of people's behavior that refer to their internal characteristics such as abilities, traits, moods, or efforts, and situational attributions, which are explanations that refer to external events like weather, luck, accidents, or other people's actions.

23. Card 23

    What is the fundamental attribution error and why is it considered an error?

    The fundamental attribution error is the tendency to overemphasize personality traits (personal attributions) and underestimate situational factors (situational attributions) when explaining other people's behavior. It is considered an error because it often leads to an inaccurate understanding of the true causes of behavior, overlooking the powerful influence of context.

24. Card 24

    How do attitudes form through experience, specifically referencing the mere exposure effect?

    Attitudes can form through experience, particularly through repeated exposure to a stimulus. The mere exposure effect states that greater exposure to a stimulus, even without direct interaction, generally leads to greater liking for it. This suggests that familiarity can foster positive attitudes.

25. Card 25

    Explain cognitive dissonance and how individuals typically reduce this uncomfortable state.

    Cognitive dissonance is an uncomfortable mental state resulting from a contradiction between two attitudes or between an attitude and a behavior, such as smoking despite knowing its health risks. Individuals typically reduce this dissonance by changing their attitudes or behaviors, or by rationalizing or trivializing the discrepancies to restore consistency.

26. Card 26

    Define 'personal attributions' and provide an example of when someone might use this type of attribution.

    Personal attributions are explanations for people's behavior that refer to their internal characteristics, such as abilities, traits, moods, or efforts. For example, if a student consistently performs well on exams, one might attribute their success to their intelligence or diligent study habits, which are internal characteristics.

27. Card 27

    Distinguish between 'situational attributions' and 'personal attributions' as described by Heider.

    Situational attributions explain behavior by referring to external events like weather, luck, accidents, or other people's actions, while personal attributions refer to internal characteristics such as abilities, traits, moods, or efforts. The key difference lies in whether the cause of behavior is perceived as internal to the person or external to them.

28. Card 28

    Explain the 'fundamental attribution error' and its implications for social perception.

    The fundamental attribution error is the tendency to overemphasize personality traits when explaining other people's behavior, often underestimating the influence of situational factors. This can lead to misjudgments, as we might incorrectly assume someone's actions are solely due to their character rather than the circumstances they are in.

29. Card 29

    How do attitudes form through 'experience and socialisation' according to the provided notes?

    Attitudes form through experience, such as repeated exposure to a stimulus leading to greater liking (mere exposure effect). They are also shaped by socialization, which includes classical conditioning (associating products with celebrities) and operant conditioning (receiving rewards for certain behaviors fostering positive attitudes).

30. Card 30

    Describe the 'mere exposure effect' and how it contributes to attitude formation.

    The mere exposure effect is the idea that greater exposure to a stimulus leads to greater liking for it. This effect contributes to attitude formation by making us more favorably disposed towards things we encounter frequently, even without direct interaction or explicit positive experiences.

31. Card 31

    Explain how 'classical conditioning' can influence attitude formation, providing an example.

    Classical conditioning influences attitude formation by associating a neutral stimulus with something already liked or disliked, leading the neutral stimulus to evoke a similar attitude. For instance, if an advertisement consistently pairs a product with a beloved celebrity, people may develop a positive attitude towards the product through association.

32. Card 32

    What is 'cognitive dissonance' and how do people typically attempt to reduce this uncomfortable state?

    Cognitive dissonance is an uncomfortable mental state resulting from a contradiction between two attitudes or between an attitude and a behavior. People reduce dissonance by changing their attitudes or behaviors, or by rationalizing or trivializing the discrepancies to make them seem less significant.

33. Card 33

    Why are 'stronger, more personally relevant attitudes' more likely to predict behavior?

    Stronger, more personally relevant attitudes are more likely to predict behavior because they are deeply ingrained and hold significant meaning for an individual. This makes them more central to a person's identity and decision-making, leading to consistent actions aligned with those attitudes.

34. Card 34

    Define 'resting membrane potential' and state its typical electrical charge.

    Resting membrane potential is the difference in electrical charge across a neuron's membrane when it is not firing. It is characterized by more negatively charged ions inside the neuron compared with more positive ions outside, typically resulting in an electrical charge of -70mV.

35. Card 35

    Explain the roles of 'sodium and potassium ions' in maintaining the resting membrane potential.

    Sodium and potassium ions are crucial for maintaining the resting membrane potential. Ion channels and transporters regulate their distribution, with more sodium ions outside and more potassium ions inside the axon, contributing to the negative charge inside the neuron.

36. Card 36

    What is the 'threshold of excitation' in a neuron, and what happens when it is reached?

    The threshold of excitation is the minimum voltage level that the resting membrane potential must reach for a neuron to fire an action potential. Once this threshold (typically -55mV) is achieved, voltage-dependent gates open, leading to a rapid influx of sodium ions and the initiation of an action potential.

37. Card 37

    Describe the sequence of ion movements that occur during the 'depolarization phase' of an action potential.

    During the depolarization phase, if the threshold of excitation is reached, voltage-sensitive sodium ion channels open. Due to both the force of diffusion and electrostatic pressure, sodium ions (Na+) rush into the nerve cell, causing the membrane potential to rapidly reverse from negative to positive, typically reaching +40mV.

38. Card 38

    Explain why an 'action potential' does not weaken as it travels along an axon.

    An action potential does not weaken as it travels because it is a 'stereotyped change' in membrane potential that is regenerated at each successive point along the axon. This 'all-or-none' principle ensures that the electrical signal maintains its full strength from the initial segment to the terminal buttons.

39. Card 39

    What is the 'refractory period' and why is it important for neural firing?

    The refractory period is the time immediately after the initiation of an action potential when it is impossible or more difficult to generate a second action potential. It is crucial because it ensures that action potentials propagate in one direction and limits the rate at which a neuron can fire, allowing for proper signal transmission and recovery.

40. Card 40

    Define 'stereotypes' and explain one problem associated with them.

    Stereotypes are cognitive schemas about groups of people that help us process information quickly and simplify social judgment. One significant problem is 'illusory correlation,' where people perceive relationships between groups and characteristics that do not actually exist, leading to biased and inaccurate beliefs.

41. Card 41

    Distinguish between 'in-groups' and 'out-groups' and describe the 'in-group favoritism' effect.

    In-groups are the groups we belong to, while out-groups are the groups we do not belong to. In-group favoritism is the tendency to favor members of our own group over members of out-groups, often leading to more positive evaluations and treatment of those within our social category.

42. Card 42

    Explain the 'out-group homogeneity effect' and its impact on perception.

    The out-group homogeneity effect is the belief that members of an out-group are more alike or similar to each other than members of one's own in-group. This can lead to oversimplification and a failure to recognize the diversity and individuality within out-groups, reinforcing stereotypes.

43. Card 43

    Define 'prejudice' and differentiate it from 'discrimination'.

    Prejudice is a negative attitude toward a group and its members, involving negative feelings, beliefs, and predispositions. Discrimination, on the other hand, is the unjustified negative behavior toward a group or its members, which is the behavioral manifestation of prejudice.

44. Card 44

    How does 'social desirability' influence the expression of prejudice?

    Social desirability influences the expression of prejudice by leading people to hide their prejudiced attitudes due to social norms and the desire to be perceived positively. While explicit prejudice may be suppressed, it can still influence behavior indirectly or in more subtle ways.

45. Card 45

    Explain the concept of 'institutional discrimination' and how it can operate.

    Institutional discrimination refers to prejudice existing within institutions, where policies or practices may disadvantage certain groups even without explicit individual prejudice. This can occur through systemic biases embedded in rules, procedures, or cultural norms that create unequal outcomes.

46. Card 46

    Describe the 'self-fulfilling prophecy' as a social source of prejudice.

    The self-fulfilling prophecy is a social source of prejudice where expectations about a group cause behavior that confirms the stereotype. For example, if a teacher expects certain students to perform poorly, they might subtly treat them differently, leading those students to indeed perform poorly, thus confirming the initial stereotype.

47. Card 47

    What is 'Social Identity Theory' and how does it explain the formation of prejudice?

    Social Identity Theory posits that people categorize themselves and others into in-groups and out-groups. Prejudice arises as individuals identify with their in-group and compare it favorably with out-groups, enhancing their self-esteem and group belonging, often at the expense of other groups.

48. Card 48

    Explain the 'scapegoat theory' as an emotional source of prejudice.

    Scapegoat theory suggests that prejudice arises from emotional sources, specifically when people blame a weaker out-group for their own problems or frustrations. This provides an outlet for anger and anxiety, deflecting responsibility and uniting the in-group against a common, often undeserving, target.

49. Card 49

    Describe the 'just-world phenomenon' and how it can contribute to prejudice.

    The just-world phenomenon is a cognitive bias where people believe that individuals get what they deserve, and conversely, deserve what they get. This belief can contribute to prejudice by leading people to rationalize inequality and misfortune, blaming victims for their circumstances rather than acknowledging systemic issues or external factors.

50. Card 50

    How does 'group-serving bias' influence attributions regarding in-group and out-group behaviors?

    Group-serving bias influences attributions by leading people to attribute positive in-group behaviors to internal causes (e.g., ability, effort) and negative out-group behaviors to internal causes. Conversely, negative in-group behaviors might be attributed to external factors, and positive out-group behaviors to external factors or luck, maintaining a favorable view of one's own group.

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